Enhanced expression of full-length human cytomegalovirus fusion protein in non-swelling baculovirus-infected cells with a minimal fed-batch strategy

Involvement of the neddylation modification system in Bombyx mori nucleopolyhedrovirus replication

Neddylation is a posttranslational modification that is similar to ubiquitination, and involved in some critical biological processes, such as DNA repair, transcription regulation, and ubiquitin-proteasome pathway. Recently, it was found that neddylation inhibitor MLN4924 has potent antiviral activity against human viruses including herpes simplex virus (HSV)-1, HSV-2, and influenza viruses. Here, we report that MLN4924 could dramatically and dose-dependently inhibits the propagation, formation of budding virus (BV) and occlusion body (OB) of a lepidopteran virus-Bombyx mori nucleopolyhedrovirus (BmNPV), impaired OB assembly. In addition, the neddylation modification protein NEDD8 is colocalized with aggresome and autophagosome. Our findings suggest that inhibiting neddylation could be an antibaculovirus strategy and MLN4924 may be used as candidate drug for that purpose.

The cell density effect in animal cell-based bioprocessing: Questions, insights and perspectives

One of the main challenges in the development of bioprocesses based on cell transient expression is the commonly reported reduction of cell specific productivity at increasing cell densities. This is generally known as the cell density effect (CDE). Many efforts have been devoted to understanding the cell metabolic implications to this phenomenon in an attempt to design operational strategies to overcome it. A comprehensive analysis of the main studies regarding the CDE is provided in this work to better define the elements comprising its cause and impact. Then, examples of methodologies and approaches employed to achieve successful transient expression at high cell densities (HCD) are thoroughly reviewed. A critical assessment of the limitations of the reported studies in the understanding of the CDE is presented, covering the leading hypothesis of the molecular implications. The overall analysis of previous work on CDE may offer useful insights for further research into manufacturing of biologics.

Herpes Simplex Virus Cell Entry Mechanisms: An Update

Herpes simplex virus (HSV) can infect a broad host range and cause mild to life threating infections in humans. The surface glycoproteins of HSV are evolutionarily conserved and show an extraordinary ability to bind more than one receptor on the host cell surface. Following attachment, the virus fuses its lipid envelope with the host cell membrane and releases its nucleocapsid along with tegument proteins into the cytosol. With the help of tegument proteins and host cell factors, the nucleocapsid is then docked into the nuclear pore. The viral double stranded DNA is then released into the host cell’s nucleus. Released viral DNA either replicates rapidly (more commonly in non-neuronal cells) or stays latent inside the nucleus (in sensory neurons). The fusion of the viral envelope with host cell membrane is a key step. Blocking this step can prevent entry of HSV into the host cell and the subsequent interactions that ultimately lead to production of viral progeny and cell death or latency. In this review, we have discussed viral entry mechanisms including the pH-independent as well as pH-dependent endocytic entry, cell to cell spread of HSV and use of viral glycoproteins as an antiviral target.

The prefusion structure of herpes simplex virus glycoprotein B

Cell entry of enveloped viruses requires specialized viral proteins that mediate fusion with the host membrane by substantial structural rearrangements from a metastable pre- to a stable postfusion conformation. This metastability renders the herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) fusion glycoprotein B (gB) highly unstable such that it readily converts into the postfusion form, thereby precluding structural elucidation of the pharmacologically relevant prefusion conformation. By identification of conserved sequence signatures and molecular dynamics simulations, we devised a mutation that stabilized this form. Functionally locking gB allowed the structural determination of its membrane-embedded prefusion conformation at sub-nanometer resolution and enabled the unambiguous fit of all ectodomains. The resulting pseudo-atomic model reveals a notable conservation of conformational domain rearrangements during fusion between HSV-1 gB and the vesicular stomatitis virus glycoprotein G, despite their very distant phylogeny. In combination with our comparative sequence-structure analysis, these findings suggest common fusogenic domain rearrangements in all class III viral fusion proteins.

Structural basis for membrane anchoring and fusion regulation of the herpes simplex virus fusogen gB

Viral fusogens merge viral and cell membranes during cell penetration. Their ectodomains drive fusion by undergoing large-scale refolding, but little is known about the functionally important regions located within or near the membrane. Here, we report the crystal structure of the full-length glycoprotein B, the fusogen from Herpes Simplex Virus, complemented by electron spin resonance measurements. The membrane-proximal (MPR), transmembrane (TMD), and cytoplasmic (CTD) domains form a uniquely folded trimeric pedestal beneath the ectodomain, which balances dynamic flexibility with extensive, stabilizing membrane interactions. Hyperfusogenic mutations within the CTD destabilize it, targeting trimeric interfaces, structural motifs, and membrane-interacting elements. Thus, we propose that the CTD trimer observed in the structure stabilizes gB in its prefusion state despite being appended to the postfusion ectodomain. Our data suggest a model for how this dynamic, membrane-dependent “clamp” controls the fusogenic refolding of gB.

Palmitoylation Strengthens Cholesterol-dependent Multimerization and Fusion Activity of Human Cytomegalovirus Glycoprotein B (gB)

Herpesviruses are a large order of animal enveloped viruses displaying a virion fusion mechanism of unusual complexity. Their multipartite machinery has a conserved core made of the gH/gL ancillary complexes and the homo-trimeric fusion protein glycoprotein B (gB). Despite its essential role in starting the viral infection, gB interaction with membrane lipids is still poorly understood. Here, evidence is provided demonstrating that human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) gB depends on the S-palmitoylation of its endodomain for an efficient interaction with cholesterol-rich membrane patches. We found that, unique among herpesviral gB proteins, the HCMV fusion factor has a Cys residue in the C-terminal region that is palmitoylated and mediates methyl-β-cyclodextrin-sensitive self-association of purified gB. A cholesterol-dependent virus-like particle trap assay, based on co-expression of the HIV Gag protein, confirmed that this post-translational modification is functional in the context of cellular membranes. Mutation of the palmitoylated Cys residue to Ala or inhibition of protein palmitoylation decreased HCMV gB export via Gag particles. Moreover, purified gBC777A showed an increased kinetic sensitivity in a cholesterol depletion test, demonstrating that palmitoyl-gB limits outward cholesterol diffusion. Finally, gB palmitoylation was required for full fusogenic activity in human epithelial cells. Altogether, these results uncover the palmitoylation of HCMV gB and its role in gB multimerization and activity.

Structure of HCMV glycoprotein B in the postfusion conformation bound to a neutralizing human antibody

Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) poses a significant threat to immunocompromised individuals and neonates infected in utero. Glycoprotein B (gB), the herpesvirus fusion protein, is a target for neutralizing antibodies and a vaccine candidate due to its indispensable role in infection. Here we show the crystal structure of the HCMV gB ectodomain bound to the Fab fragment of 1G2, a neutralizing human monoclonal antibody isolated from a seropositive subject. The gB/1G2 interaction is dominated by aromatic residues in the 1G2 heavy chain CDR3 protruding into a hydrophobic cleft in the gB antigenic domain 5 (AD-5). Structural analysis and comparison with HSV gB suggest the location of additional neutralizing antibody binding sites on HCMV gB. Finally, immunoprecipitation experiments reveal that 1G2 can bind to HCMV virion gB suggesting that its epitope is exposed and accessible on the virus surface. Our data will support the development of vaccines and therapeutic antibodies against HCMV infection.

Cytomegalovirus is a danger to individuals with compromised immune systems and neonates infected in utero. Here the authors show the structure of a neutralizing antibody-bound viral fusion protein glycoprotein B, supporting the development of therapeutic antibodies and vaccines.

Bioreactor concepts for cell culture-based viral vaccine production

Vaccine manufacturing processes are designed to meet present and upcoming challenges associated with a growing vaccine market and to include multi-use facilities offering a broad portfolio and faster reaction times in case of pandemics and emerging diseases. The final products, from whole viruses to recombinant viral proteins, are very diverse, making standard process strategies hardly universally applicable. Numerous factors such as cell substrate, virus strain or expression system, medium, cultivation system, cultivation method, and scale need consideration. Reviewing options for efficient and economical production of human vaccines, this paper discusses basic factors relevant for viral antigen production in mammalian cells, avian cells and insect cells. In addition, bioreactor concepts, including static systems, single-use systems, stirred tanks and packed-beds are addressed. On this basis, methods towards process intensification, in particular operational strategies, the use of perfusion systems for high product yields, and steps to establish continuous processes are introduced.