Mantle Branch-Specific RNA Sequences of Moon Scallop Amusium pleuronectes to Identify Shell Color-Associated Genes

Research progress on formation mechanism of pearl

Pearls are deeply cherished for their rich color and gorgeous luster, and their quality directly affects their value. Currently, the evaluation of pearl quality is mainly based on four aspects: color, shape, size and smoothness. The quality of pearls is influenced by a variety of factors, categorized into internal factors, such as the structural composition of the nacreous layer and genetic factors of the mussels, and external factors, including the aquaculture environment. Existing research results indicates that genetic factors are the dominant factor controlling the pearl quality. However, the macromolecules such as metal ions, organic pigments and various physical and chemical factors in the aquaculture water environment will also significantly impact pearl quality. Among these, matrix proteins are organic macromolecules found in the nacreous layer that play an important role in pearl quality. They participate in the deposition of calcium carbonate and the construction of the organic framework, affecting the pearls' size and shape. The color of pearls is influenced by the deposition of metal ions, the transport of organic pigments and the regulation of microstructure.

Outer fold is sole effective tissue among three mantle folds with regard to oyster shell colour

Molluscs constitute the second largest phylum of animals in the world, and shell colour is one of their most important phenotypic characteristics. In this study, we found among three folds on the mantle edge of oyster, only the outer fold had the same colour as the shell. Transcriptome and mantle cutting experiment indicated that the outer fold may be mainly reflected in chitin framework formation and biomineralisation. There were obvious differences in SEM structure and protein composition between the black and white shell periostraca. The black shell periostraca had more proteins related to melanin biosynthesis and chitin binding. Additionally, we identified an uncharacterized protein gene (named as CgCBP) ultra-highly expressed only in the black outer fold and confirmed its function of chitin-binding and CaCO₃ precipitation promoting. RNAi also indicated that CgCBP knockdown could change the structure of shell periostracum and reduce shell pigmentation. All these results suggest that the mantle outer fold plays multiple key roles in shell periostraca bioprocessing, and shell periostracum structure affected by chitin-binding protein is functionally correlated with shell pigmentation. The investigation of oyster shell periostracum structure and shell colour will provide a better understanding in pigmentation during biological mineralisation in molluscs.

Identification of shell-color-related microRNAs in the Manila clam Ruditapes philippinarum using high-throughput sequencing of small RNA transcriptomes

Shell-color polymorphism is a common phenomenon in several mollusk species and has been associated with thermal capacity, developmental stability, shell strength, and immunity. Shell-color polymorphism has been related to the differential expression of genes in several signal transduction pathways; however, the functions of micro-RNAs (miRNAs) in shell-color formation remain unclear. In the present study, we compared high-quality, small-RNA transcriptomes in three strains of the Manila clam Ruditapes philippinarum with specific shell-color patterns, artificially selected for six generations. Totals of 114 known and 208 novel miRNAs were identified by high-throughput sequencing, of which nine known and one novel miRNA were verified by stem-loop quantitative real time-polymerase chain reaction. Predicted miRNA targets were subjected to Gene Ontology and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes pathway enrichment analyses. miR-137 and miR-216b and the Hedgehog signaling pathway and Wnt signaling pathway were identified as being potentially involved in pigment formation and regulation in R. philippinarum. These results may help to clarify the role of miRNAs in shell coloration and shed light on the mechanisms regulating color formation in bivalve shells.

Genome-wide identification, characterisation and expression analysis of the ALAS gene in the Yesso scallop (Patinopecten yessoensis) with different shell colours

Porphyrins, one of the most common shell pigments, are by-products of the haem pathway. 5-Aminolaevulinate synthase (ALAS) is the first and rate-limiting enzyme in this pathway and has been well studied in vertebrate species. However, the function of ALAS in shell colouration has been poorly studied in molluscs, which are renowned for their colourful shells. In the present study, an ALAS gene, named PyALAS, was identified through whole-genome scanning in the Yesso scallop (Patinopecten yessoensis), an economically and evolutionarily important bivalve species in which the shell colour represents polymorphism. Two conserved domains were detected in the PyALAS protein sequence, including a Preseq-ALAS domain and a 5-ALAS domain, confirming the identification of PyALAS. Phylogenetic analysis of the ALAS proteins among various invertebrate and vertebrate species revealed a high consistency between the molecular evolution of ALAS and the species taxonomy. PyALAS was ubiquitously expressed in most adult tissues of the Yesso scallop. The left mantle expressed a significantly higher level of PyALAS than the right side in brown scallops, whereas there was no significant difference in white scallops. Significantly different expression levels of PyALAS was also detected between the two different shell colour strains. These data indicate that PyALAS plays an important role in shell colouration in Yesso scallops and the present study provides new insights into the molecular mechanism of shell colouration in molluscs.

De novo assembly transcriptome analysis reveals the preliminary molecular mechanism of pigmentation in juveniles of the hard clam Mercenaria mercenaria

Color plays a vital function in camouflage, sexual selection, immunity, and evolution. Mollusca possess vivid shell colors and pigmentation starts at the juvenile stage. The hard clam Mercenaria mercenaria is a widely cultivated bivalve of high economic value. To explore the molecular mechanism of pigmentation in juvenile clams, here, we performed RNA-Seq analysis on non-pigmented, white, and red M. mercenaria specimens. Clean reads were assembled into 358,285 transcripts and 149,234 unigenes, whose N50 lengths were 2107 bp and 1567 bp, respectively. Differentially expressed genes were identified and analyzed for KEGG enrichment. "Melanoma/Melanogenesis", "ABC transporters", and "Porphyrin and chlorophyll metabolism" pathways appeared to be associated with pigmentation. Pathways related to carotenoid metabolism seemed to also play a vital role in pigmentation in juveniles. Our results provide new insights into the formation of shell color in juvenile hard clams.

Genome-wide identification, characterization and expression analysis of the MITF gene in Yesso scallops (Patinopecten yessoensis) with different shell colors

The microphthalmia-associated transcription factor (MITF) is the center of the regulator network of melanin synthesis in vertebrates. However, the role of MITF in shell color formation is poorly studied in mollusks. In the present study, an MITF gene, PyMITF, was first identified at the whole-genome level in Yesso scallop (Patinopecten yessoensis), an evolutionarily and economically important species, the shell color of which shows polymorphism. The PyMITF is a large gene spanning ~37 kb in the genome with 7 introns and 8 exons. A basic helix-loop-helix leucine zipper (bHLH-LZ) domain was detected in the PyMITF protein sequence, which can bind the canonical E-box sequence in the promoter region of the downstream genes. Phylogenetic analysis of the MITFs among vertebrates and invertebrates revealed that the molecular evolution of MITFs was consistent with the species taxonomy. Different expression levels of PyMITF were detected among different shell color strains, indicating the important role of PyMITF involved in shell pigmentation. Besides, PyMITF was expressed at a significantly higher level in the central mantle than that in the edge mantle, proving the participation of the central mantle in shell color formation in molecular level for the first time. The work provides valuable information for the molecular mechanism study of shell color formation.

A Genome-Wide Association Study Identifies the Genomic Region Associated with Shell Color in Yesso Scallop, Patinopecten yessoensis

The shell color polymorphism widely exists in economic shellfish, which not only results in a better visual perception but also shows great value as an economic trait for breeding. Small numbers of reddish-orange shell Yesso scallops, Patinopecten yessoensis, were found in cultured populations compared to the brown majority. In this study, a genome-wide association study was conducted to understand the genetic basis of shell color. Sixty-six 2b-RAD libraries with equal numbers of reddish-orange and brown shell individuals were constructed and sequenced using the Illumina HiSeq 2000 platform. A total of 322,332,684 high-quality reads were obtained, and the average sequencing depth was 18.4×. One genomic region on chromosome 11 that included 239 single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) was identified as significantly associated with shell color. After verification by high-resolution melting in another population, two SNPs were selected as specific loci for reddish-orange shell color. These two SNPs could be used to improve the selective breeding progress of true-breeding strains with complete reddish-orange scallops. In addition, within the significantly associated genomic region, candidate genes were identified using marker sequences to search the draft genome of Yesso scallop. Three genes (LDLR, FRIS, and FRIY) with known functions in carotenoid metabolism were identified. Further study using high-performance liquid chromatography proved that the relative level of carotenoids in the reddish-orange shells was 40 times higher than that in the brown shells. These results suggested that the accumulation of carotenoids contributes to the formation of reddish-orange shells.