Cholelithiasis and choledocholithiasis in children; risk factors for development

Approach to biliary tree clearance in pediatric patients undergoing cholecystectomy: insights from a tertiary hospital

INTRODUCTION

Despite the increasing rate of cholecystectomy in pediatric patients, no standardized protocols for perioperative biliary tree clearance in children exist and the applicability of adult guidelines to pediatric patients remains uncertain.

AIM

To identify predictors for CBD stones in pediatric patients undergoing cholecystectomy and to evaluate the applicability of adult guidelines for children.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We conducted a retrospective study on pediatric patients who underwent cholecystectomy for cholelithiasis at a tertiary pediatric medical center from 2011 to 2024. Medical records were reviewed for demographic and clinical characteristics. Elevated bilirubin was defined as above 4 mg/dL with > 20% conjugated. The outcomes measured included the presence of CBD stones detected by ERCP or intraoperative cholangiography and post-cholecystectomy complications due to retained stones.

RESULTS

A total of 177 patients were included in the study, with a median age of 13.4 years (IQR 9, 16.4). Sixteen patients (9%) were diagnosed with CBD stones. Elevated bilirubin, dilated CBD, and filling defects on primary imaging were strongly associated with CBD stones (50.0% vs. 9.9%, p < 0.001, 62.5% vs. 9.3%, p < 0.001, 43.8% vs. 4.4%, p < 0.001). The 2019 ASGE guidelines had a sensitivity of 56.2% and a specificity of 91.1% for predicting CBD stones. Adjusting the guidelines to classify elevated bilirubin as an independent high-risk feature improved sensitivity to 68.8%, with a slight reduction in specificity to 87.6%.

CONCLUSION

Our study suggests that the 2019 ASGE guidelines are applicable to children. Based on our findings and previous data, it seems reasonable to classify bilirubin elevation as an independent high-risk feature.

Pediatric hepatobiliary scintigraphy: biliary atresia and beyond

Imaging is essential in evaluating pediatric patients with suspected hepatobiliary abnormalities. While anatomic imaging is commonly requested initially, in a variety of clinical scenarios, scintigraphy further refines the differential diagnosis and provides additional necessary functional information. The essential pathologies that benefit from scintigraphy in children encompass congenital disorders, such as biliary atresia and choledochal cysts, biliary stone diseases, functional gallbladder disorders, and suspected bile leaks. This manuscript reviews the proper technique of performing hepatobiliary scintigraphy in children and highlights the scintigraphic features of pediatric hepatobiliary pathologies.

PEDIATRIC CHOLELITHIASIS AND FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH CHOLECYSTECTOMY

BACKGROUND

Cholelithiasis, characterized by hardened deposits in the gallbladder, presents symptoms such as abdominal pain, jaundice, nausea, and potential complications like cholecystitis and choledocholithiasis. Despite increasing diagnoses, literature on pediatric cholelithiasis is limited, with undefined protocols.

OBJECTIVE

This study aims to evaluate the clinical, laboratory characteristics, and outcomes of pediatric cholelithiasis cases, identifying factors associated with cholecystectomy.

METHODS

A retrospective case series study was conducted on patients treated at a tertiary service, diagnosed with cholelithiasis via ultrasound from 2007 to 2021. Clinical profiles, comorbidities, examinations, procedures, and patient evolution were assessed. Patients were categorized into two groups: Group NC (no cholecystectomy) and Group C (cholecystectomy).

RESULTS

Thirty-five patients were included, with 51% females and 60% having comorbidities with abdominal pain was the predominant symptom. Thirty-three patients were managed outpatient while two patients continued follow-up at another facility. Twelve opted for expectant management (Group NC), while 21 underwent cholecystectomy (Group C). Elective laparoscopic cholecystectomy was performed in Group C, with a median age of 11 years and 3 months. Group C showed a higher frequency of abdominal pain compared to Group NC, and this difference was significant (P=0.04). No differences were observed in gender, comorbidities, jaundice, fever, laboratory findings, symptom duration, follow-up time, or age at diagnosis. The median follow-up duration in Group NC was 1 year and 7 months.

CONCLUSION

Abdominal pain was the predominant symptom in patients undergoing cholecystectomy, while comorbidities and laboratory abnormalities showed no significant associations. Although surgical intervention is typically recommended, expectant management proved viable in select cases without ensuing complications during the evaluation period.

"Surgery First" vs. "Endoscopy First" for Pediatric Choledocholithiasis Presenting at the End of the Week - A CARES Working Group Study

BACKGROUND

Choledocholithiasis in children is commonly managed with an "endoscopy-first" (EF) strategy (endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) followed by laparoscopic cholecystectomy (LC)). Because ERCP availability is often limited at the end of the week (EoW), we hypothesized that a "surgery-first" (SF) approach (LC with intraoperative cholangiogram (IOC) ± transcystic laparoscopic common bile exploration (LCBDE)) would decrease length of stay (LOS) and time to definitive intervention (TTDI).

METHODS

A multicenter, retrospective cohort study was conducted on pediatric patients from 2018 to 2023 with suspected choledocholithiasis. Work week (WW) presentation was defined as admission between Monday to Thursday. TTDI was defined as time to LC or postoperative ERCP (if required).

RESULTS

Among seven hospitals, there were 354 pediatric patients; 217 (61%) managed with SF (125 WW, 92 EoW) and 137 (39%) managed with EF (74 WW, 63 EoW). SF groups had a shorter LOS for both WW and EoW presentation (60.2 h and 58.3 h vs 88.5 h and 93.6 h respectively; p < 0.05). TTDI decreased in SF (26.4 h and 28.9 h vs 61.4 h and 72.8 h; p < 0.05). All EF patients underwent at least two anesthetics (preoperative ERCP followed by LC) while the majority (79%) of the SF group had only one procedure (LC + IOC ± LCBDE).

CONCLUSION

Children who present with choledocholithiasis at EoW have a longer LOS and TTDI. These findings are amplified when children enter an EF pathway. A surgery-first approach results in fewer procedures, decreased TTDI, and shorter LOS, regardless of the time of presentation.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level III.

Reducing MRCP Utilization Through a "Surgery First" Approach for Pediatric Choledocholithiasis: A CARES Working Group Retrospective Study

BACKGROUND

Choledocholithiasis in children is rising and frequently managed with an endoscopy-first (EF) approach that utilizes endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) followed by laparoscopic cholecystectomy (LC). Magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography (MRCP) is a resource intensive modality that often precedes ERCP to gain further assurance of choledocholithiasis prior to intervention. MRCP can lead to a longer length of stay (LOS) and strain healthcare resources. We hypothesized that the use of MRCP is decreased with a surgery-first (SF) approach.

METHODS

The Choledocholithiasis Alliance for Research, Education, and Surgery (CARES) Working Group conducted this retrospective study on pediatric patients with suspected choledocholithiasis. SF patients underwent LC + intraoperative cholangiogram (IOC) ± laparoscopic common bile duct exploration (LCBDE). Imaging studies included ultrasound (US), MRCP, and computed tomography (CT).

RESULTS

From seven institutions, 357 pediatric patients were identified. The SF (n = 220) group received fewer imaging studies then EF (n = 137) (1.29 vs. 1.62; p < 0.05). US was more commonly employed and the number of US and CT scans was similar. The SF group had lower MRCP utilization than EF (29% vs. 59%; p < 0.05). EF patients that received an MRCP had the longest LOS (4.0 d [2.4, 6.3]) compared to SF that did not (1.9 d [1.2, 3.2]) (p < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

Children with choledocholithiasis managed with an EF approach receive more diagnostic imaging, especially MRCP. While MRCP remains a powerful diagnostic tool, a surgery-first approach can minimize the resource utilization and LOS associated with magnetic resonance imaging.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level III.

Multi-Institutional Analysis of Choledocholithiasis in Pediatric vs Adult Patients

BACKGROUND

In adults, upfront intraoperative cholangiogram with laparoscopic common bile duct exploration (LCBDE) is well accepted for management of choledocholithiasis. Despite recent evidence supporting LCBDE utility in children, there has been hesitation to adopt this surgery first (SF) approach over ERCP first (EF) due to perceived technical challenges. We compared rates of successful stone clearance during LCBDE between adult and pediatric patients to evaluate if pediatric surgeons could anticipate similar rates of successful clearance.

METHODS

A multicenter, retrospective review of pediatric (<18 years) and adult patients with choledocholithiasis managed from 2018 to 2024 was performed. Demographic and clinical data were obtained. Rate of successful duct clearance with LCBDE was compared. Surgical and endoscopic complications (infections, bleeding, pancreatitis, bile leak) were also compared.

RESULTS

724 patients, 333 (45.9%) pediatric and 391 (54.0%) adults, were included. The median age of pediatric vs adult patients was 15.2 years [13.1, 16.6] vs 55.5 years [34.1, 70.5], respectively. Of these, 201 (60.4%) pediatric vs 169 (43.2%) adult patients underwent SF, p < 0.001. LCBDE was attempted in 84 (41.7%) pediatric vs 140 (82.8%) adults, p = 0.002. LCBDE success was higher in pediatric vs adult patients (82.1% vs 71.4%, p = 0.004). Complications rates were similar however, pediatric patients who underwent EF had higher endoscopic complications (9.1% vs 3.6%, p = 0.03).

CONCLUSION

LCBDE is highly successful in children vs adults with no increased surgical complications. This data, coupled with the limited ERCP access for children, supports that LCBDE is an equally effective tool for managing choledocholithiasis in children as is accepted in adults.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level III.

A Comparative Analysis of "Surgery First" vs. "Endoscopy First" for Pediatric Choledocholithiasis Presenting at the End of the Week

BACKGROUND

Choledocholithiasis in children is commonly managed with an "endoscopy first" (EF) strategy (endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) followed by laparoscopic cholecystectomy (LC) under a separate anesthetic). Endoscopic Retrograde Cholangiopancreatography is limited at the end of the week (EoW). We hypothesize that a "surgery first" (SF) approach with LC, intraoperative cholangiogram (IOC), and possible laparoscopic common bile duct exploration (LCBDE) can decrease length of stay (LOS) and time to definitive intervention (TTDI).

METHODS

This is a retrospective single-center cohort study conducted between 2018 and 2023 in pediatric patients with suspected choledocholithiasis. Work week (WW) presentation included admission between Monday and Thursday. Time to definitive intervention was defined as time to LC.

RESULTS

88 pediatric patients were identified, 61 managed with SF (33 WW and 28 EoW) and 27 managed with EF (18 WW and 9 EoW). Both SF groups had shorter mean LOS for WW and EoW presentation (64.5 h, 92.4 h, 112.9 h, and 113.0 h; P < .05). There was a downtreading TTDI in the SF groups (SF: WW 24.7 h and EoW 21.7 h; EF: WW 31.7 h and EoW 35.9 h; P = .11). 44 patients underwent LCBDE with similar success rates (91.6% WW and 85% EoW; P = 1.0). All EF patients received 2 procedures; 69% of SF patients were definitively managed with one.

CONCLUSION

Children with choledocholithiasis at the EoW have a longer LOS and TTDI. These findings are amplified when children enter an EF treatment pathway. An SF approach results in shorter LOS with fewer procedures, regardless of the time of presentation.

Laparoscopic cholecystectomy for symptomatic cholelithiasis in children and adolescents: analysis of 50 cases from a single institution

PURPOSE

To investigate the clinical characteristics of symptomatic cholecystolithiasis and laparoscopic cholecystectomy complications in pediatric patients.

METHODS

The medical records of 50 children and adolescents who underwent laparoscopic cholecystectomy were analyzed. We evaluated gender, age, body mass index, preoperative clinical aspects, perioperative complications, and gallstone composition.

RESULTS

Among the patients, 33 (66%) were female, and 17 (34%) were male. The mean age was 11.4 ± 3.6. All patients were diagnosed with cholecystolithiasis by abdominal ultrasonography. Twelve patients (24%) had hematological disease: eight (16%) with sickle cell anemia and four (8%) with hereditary spherocytosis. Thirteen patients (26%) were obese. Twelve patients (24%) had complicated biliary disease. During the intraoperative period, three patients (6%) had excessive bleeding in the hepatic hilum, and one had an accidental injury to the common bile duct. Three (6%) postoperative complications (acute pancreatitis, common bile duct stenosis, and intestinal obstruction) were observed. Among 28 patients (56%), 25 (50%) had cholesterol gallstones, and three (6%) had bile pigment gallstones.

CONCLUSIONS

The evolution of cholecystolithiasis in the pediatric population can present serious complications, emphasizing the need to avoid temporizing cholecystolithiasis in children and adolescents because laparoscopic cholecystectomy in this group is safe, with low complication rates.

Not Only Metabolic Complications of Childhood Obesity

The increasing incidence of obesity in the pediatric population requires attention to its serious complications. It turns out that in addition to typical, well-known metabolic complications, obesity as a systemic disease carries the risk of equally serious, although less obvious, non-metabolic complications, such as cardiovascular diseases, polycystic ovary syndrome, chronic kidney disease, asthma, thyroid dysfunction, immunologic and dermatologic conditions, and mental health problems. They can affect almost all systems of the young body and also leave their mark in adulthood. In addition, obesity also contributes to the exacerbation of existing childhood diseases. As a result, children suffering from obesity may have a reduced quality of life, both physically and mentally, and their life expectancy may be shortened. It also turns out that, in the case of obese pregnant girls, the complications of obesity may also affect their unborn children. Therefore, it is extremely important to take all necessary actions to prevent the growing epidemic of obesity in the pediatric population, as well as to treat existing complications of obesity and detect them at an early stage. In summary, physicians treating a child with a systemic disease such as obesity must adopt a holistic approach to treatment.

Indocyanine green (ICG) fluorescence-enhanced applications in pediatric surgery

The breadth of pediatric surgical practice and variety of anatomic anomalies that characterize surgical disease in children and neonates require a unique level of operative mastery and versatility. Intraoperative navigation of small, complex, and often abnormal anatomy presents a particular challenge for pediatric surgeons. Clinical experience with fluorescent tissue dye, specifically indocyanine green (ICG), is quickly gaining widespread incorporation into adult surgical practice as a safe, non-toxic means of accurately visualizing tissue perfusion, lymphatic flow, and biliary anatomy to enhance operative speed, safety, and patient outcomes. Experience in pediatric surgery, however, remains limited. ICG-fluorescence guided surgery is poised to address the challenges of pediatric and neonatal operations for a growing breadth of surgical pathology. Fluorescent angiography has permitted intraoperative visualization of colorectal flap perfusion for complex pelvic reconstruction and anastomotic perfusion after esophageal atresia repair, while its hepatic absorption and biliary excretion has made it an excellent agent for delineating the dissection plane in the Kasai portoenterostomy and identifying both primary and metastatic hepatoblastoma lesions. Subcutaneous and intra-lymphatic ICG injection can identify iatrogenic chylous leaks and improved yields in sentinel lymph node biopsies. ICG-guided surgery holds promise for more widespread use in pediatric surgical conditions, and continued evaluation of efficacy will be necessary to better inform clinical practice and identify where to focus and develop this technical resource.

Obesity and Risk for Incomplete Stone Clearance in Patients with Bile Duct Stones Undergoing ERCP

INTRODUCTION

Obesity degrades fluoroscopic image quality and could impact on the endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) outcomes. Our study aimed to compare the clinical outcomes and adverse events (AEs) between obese and non-obese patients undergoing ERCP for biliary stone-related conditions.

METHODS

Patients who underwent ERCP for biliary-stone related conditions were included. The analyzed outcomes included the rates of successful bile duct cannulation, incomplete bile duct stone clearance, recurrent bile duct stones, and AEs.

RESULTS

A total of 229 patients (116 obese patients and 113 non-obese patients) were included. All patients had successful bile duct cannulation. The rates of incomplete bile duct stone clearance (11.3% vs. 9.0%, P = 0.51), recurrent bile duct stones (1.9% vs. 4.2%, P = 0.24), and AEs (1.8% vs. 0.7%, P = 0.43) were not significantly different between the two groups, respectively.

CONCLUSION

Our study demonstrates no associations between obesity and the rates of incomplete stone clearance, recurrent stones, successful cannulation, or AEs in patients undergoing ERCP for biliary stone-related disease.

Adipocyte dysfunction promotes lung inflammation and aberrant repair: a potential target of COPD

Background

Obesity and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) are prevailing worldwide, bringing a heavy medical burden. Clinical and pathophysiological relationship between obesity and COPD is paradoxical and elusive. We aim to explore their inherent associations from clinical, genetic, and animal levels.

Methods

We performed literature review and cohort analysis of patients with COPD to compare lung function, symptom, and prognosis among different weight groups. After retrieving datasets of obesity and COPD in Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database, we carried out differentially expressed gene analysis, functional enrichment, protein-protein interactions network, and weighted gene co-expression network analysis. Then, we acquired paraffin-embedded lung tissues of fatty acid-binding protein 4-Cre-BMPR2fl/fl conditional knockout (CKO) mice that were characterized by adipocyte-specific knockout of bone morphogenetic protein receptor 2 (BMPR2) for staining and analysis.

Results

Our cohort study reports the effect of obesity on COPD is inconsistent with previous clinical studies. Lung function of overweight group was statistically superior to that of other groups. We also found that the inflammatory factors were significantly increased hub genes, and cytokine-associated pathways were enriched in white adipose tissue of patients with obesity. Similarly, injury repair-associated genes and pathways were further enhanced in the small airways of patients with COPD. CKO mice spontaneously developed lung injury, emphysema, and pulmonary vascular remodeling, along with increased infiltration of macrophages. BMPR2-defiecient adipocytes had dysregulated expression of adipocytokines.

Conclusion

Inflammation and abnormal repair might be potential mechanisms of the pathological association between obesity and COPD. BMPR2-associated adipocyte dysfunction promoted lung inflammation and aberrant repair, in which adipocytokines might play a role and thus could be a promising therapeutic target.

Are children with gallstone disease more overweight? Results of a matched case-control analysis

INTRODUCTION

Gallstone disease (GD) is increasingly common among children, possibly caused by an unhealthy food environment and the associated unhealthy lifestyle. In this study, we investigate the association between body weight and gallstone risk in a cohort of prospectively recruited children with GD.

METHODS

We analysed 188 children with gallstones (50.0% girls, median age 9.8 years) and 376 children without stones who were age- and gender-matched to cases in a ratio of 2:1. Cases were prospectively recruited at three Polish university centres (Warsaw, Katowice and Bialystok). Gallstones were diagnosed by either abdominal sonography or by a history of cholecystectomy. Matched controls without gallstones were selected from 22,412 children taking part in nationally representative Polish health surveys (OLA and OLAF studies) which provided height and weight data for randomly selected pre-school (2.5-6 years) and school aged (7-18 years) children and adolescents.

RESULTS

Analysis of the age- and gender-matched cases and controls demonstrated that patients with GD had significantly higher BMI (P = 0.02) and BMI z-score (P < 0.01) than children without stones. Children with gallstones were more frequently overweight (35.6%, P < 0.01) and obese (12.2%, P < 0.01) than controls (18.4% and 6.7%, respectively). Regression analyses showed that BMI, BMI z-score, overweight and obesity were all associated with increased GD risk (all P < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

Overweight and obesity are common in children with cholelithiasis. Given the epidemic of obesity in children we should expect an increasing prevalence of gallstones and stone-related complications in youths and in adults.

Machine learning to predict pediatric choledocholithiasis: A Western Pediatric Surgery Research Consortium retrospective study

BACKGROUND

The purpose of this study was to accurately predict pediatric choledocholithiasis with clinical data using a computational machine learning algorithm.

METHODS

A multicenter retrospective cohort study was performed on children <18 years of age who underwent cholecystectomy between 2016 to 2019 at 10 pediatric institutions. Demographic data, clinical findings, laboratory, and ultrasound results were evaluated by bivariate analyses. An Extra-Trees machine learning algorithm using k-fold cross-validation was used to determine predictive factors for choledocholithiasis. Model performance was assessed using the area under the receiver operating characteristic curve on a validation dataset.

RESULTS

A cohort of 1,597 patients was included, with an average age of 13.9 ± 3.2 years. Choledocholithiasis was confirmed in 301 patients (18.8%). Obesity was the most common comorbidity in all patients. Choledocholithiasis was associated with the finding of a common bile duct stone on ultrasound, increased common bile duct diameter, and higher serum concentrations of aspartate aminotransferase, alanine transaminase, lipase, and direct and peak total bilirubin. Nine features (age, body mass index, common bile duct stone on ultrasound, common bile duct diameter, aspartate aminotransferase, alanine transaminase, lipase, direct bilirubin, and peak total bilirubin) were clinically important and included in the machine learning algorithm. Our 9-feature model deployed on new patients was found to be highly predictive for choledocholithiasis, with an area under the receiver operating characteristic score of 0.935.

CONCLUSION

This multicenter study uses machine learning for pediatric choledocholithiasis. Nine clinical factors were highly predictive of choledocholithiasis, and a machine learning model trained using medical and laboratory data was able to identify children at the highest risk for choledocholithiasis.

Gallbladder Stones in Pediatric Age: An Emerging Problem: The Risk of Difficult Cholecystectomy and the Importance of a Preoperative Evaluation

The need for cholecystectomy during pediatric age has significantly increased in the last two decades. As biliary pathology increases, the probability of complicated cholecystectomies increases too. The aim of this article is to analyze our experience with difficult laparoscopic pediatric cholecystectomy, focusing on the importance of an accurate pre-operative imaging study. We retrospectively analyzed all patients affected by cholelithiasis who underwent laparoscopic cholecystectomy at the Pediatric Surgery Department of San Camillo Forlanini hospital of Rome and Santa Maria alle Scotte University Hospital of Siena from 2017 to 2022. Demographic data, body mass index (BMI), recovery data, laboratory tests, imaging exams, surgical findings, post operative management and outcome were taken into account. Overall, 34 pediatric patients, with a mean age of 14.1 years (6-18 years) were included, with a mean BMI of 29. All patients underwent abdominal ultrasonography and a liver MRI with cholangiography (cMRI). We identified five cases as "difficult cholecystectomies". Two subtotal cholecystectomies were performed. Cholecystectomy in pediatric surgery can be difficult. The surgeon must be able to find alternative strategies to total cholecystectomy to avoid the risk of possible bile duct injury (BDI). Pre-operative imaging study trough ultrasound and especially cMRI is crucial to recognize possible difficulties and to plan the surgery.

Echo-Endoscopy Combined with Virtual Reality: A Whole Perspective of Laparoscopic Common Bile Duct Exploration in Children

Introduction: Endoscopic procedures are performed more frequently in children due to technological advances that can be safely performed in an adequate setting with a support of a multidisciplinary team. Pediatric indications for ERCP (endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography) and EUS (endoscopic ultrasound) occur mainly due to congenital malformations. In a pediatric case series, we report the application of EUS combined with duodenoscopy, eventually associated with ERCP and minimally invasive surgery, highlighting the importance of defining a tailored dedicated management pathway for each patient. Patients and methods: A series of 12 patients, managed at our Center in the last three years, were evaluated, and their management was discussed. Results: EUS was performed in eight patients and permitted the differential diagnosis of duplication cysts and the visualization of the biliary tree and pancreatic anatomy. ERCP was attempted in five patients: in one case, it permitted the preservation of pancreatic tissue, postponing surgery and in three patients, it was technically unfeasible. MIS (minimally invasive surgery) was performed in seven patients, two with laparoscopic common bile duct exploration (LCBDE). Precise anatomical definition and the possibility of surgical simulation and team sharing were evaluated under VR HMD (Virtual Reality Head Mounted Display) in four cases. Conclusions: Exploration of the common bile duct in children differs from that of the adult population and combines echo-endoscopy and ERCP. The integrated use of minimally invasive surgery in the pediatric area is necessary for the whole management perspective in complex malformations and small patients. The introduction in the clinical practice of a preoperative study with Virtual Reality allows a better survey of the malformation and a tailored treatment.

Expanding the Use of Endoscopic Retrograde Cholangiopancreatography in Pediatrics: A National Database Analysis of Demographics and Complication Rates

Background

This study aimed to aid in risk assessment of pediatric endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) candidates by utilizing a national pediatric database with a large sample to assess how patient characteristics may affect ERCP complication rates.

Methods

The Kids' Inpatient Database (KID) is a sample of pediatric discharges in states participating in the Healthcare Cost and Utilization Project (HCUP). This database provides demographic information, hospitalization duration, and outcome information for hospitalizations during which an ERCP occurred. International Classification of Diseases (ICD) codes were used to determine the hospitalization indication. ERCP complication rate was ascertained via ICD codes. All statistical analyses were performed using SAS 9.4.

Results

Complications were seen in 5.4% of hospitalizations with mortality observed in less than 0.2%. This analysis captured a large Hispanic population, specifically in the South and West regions. Gallbladder calculus and cholecystitis were more likely to occur in females. A higher percentage of patients in the age 10 - 17 group were female (72.2% vs. 52.7%, P < 0.01) and Hispanic (33.4% vs. 22.7%, P < 0.01) compared to the age 0 - 9 group. Age 0 - 5 and male gender were associated with lower routine home discharge rates and longer lengths of stay. Complications occurred at a higher rate in ages 0 - 5, though the difference was not statistically significant.

Conclusions

ERCP is a safe procedure for pediatric patients with low complication rates and rare mortality. We found statistically significant differences in the procedure indications between pediatric age groups, races, and genders. Age ≤ 5 years and male gender were associated with more complicated healthcare courses.

The Etiology of Cholelithiasis in Children and Adolescents-A Literature Review

The incidence of gallstone disease has increased in recent years. The pathogenesis of cholelithiasis is not fully understood. The occurrence of the disease is influenced by both genetic and environmental factors. This article reviews the literature on cholelithiasis in children, with the exception of articles on hematological causes of cholelithiasis and cholelithiasis surgery. The aim of this review is to present the latest research on the pathogenesis of gallstone disease in children. The paper discusses the influence of all factors known so far, such as genetic predisposition, age, infections, medications used, parenteral nutrition, and comorbidities, on the development of gallstone disease. The course of cholelithiasis in the pediatric population is complex, ranging from asymptomatic to life-threatening. Understanding the course of the disease and predisposing factors can result in a faster diagnosis of the disease and administration of appropriate treatment.

Age- and sex-specific rates of gall bladder disease in children with sickle cell disease

BACKGROUND

Children with sickle cell disease (SCD) have an increased risk for gallstones due to chronic hyperbilirubinemia from hemolysis. Although gallstones are a known complication, there is variability in estimates of disease burden and uncertainty in the association between sex and gall bladder disease (GBD).

METHODS

This was a retrospective cohort study of children with SCD using administrative claims data (January 1, 2014-December 31, 2018). Population-averaged multivariable panel-data logistic regression models were used to evaluate the association between GBD clinical encounters (outcome) and two exposures (age and sex). Annual GBD risk was calculated using predictive margins, adjusting for disease severity, transfusion frequency, and hydroxyurea exposure.

RESULTS

A total of 13,745 individuals (of 21,487 possible) met inclusion criteria. The population was evenly split across sex (49.5% female) with predominantly Medicaid insurance (69%). A total of 946 individuals (6.9%) had GBD, 432 (3.1%) had a gallstone complication, and 487 (3.5%) underwent cholecystectomy. The annual risk of GBD rose nonlinearly from 1 to 5% between ages 1 and 19 years with no difference between males and females. Cholecystectomy occurred primarily in individuals with GBD (87%), and neither age nor sex was associated with cholecystectomy in this population. High disease severity (compared with low) more than doubled the annual risk of GBD at all ages.

CONCLUSIONS

GBD is associated with age but not sex in children with SCD. Neither age nor sex is associated with risk of cholecystectomy. High disease severity increases the rate of GBD at all ages.

The Laparoscopic Cholecystectomy and Common Bile Duct Exploration: A Single-Step Treatment of Pediatric Cholelithiasis and Choledocholithiasis

BACKGROUND

In recent years, complicated biliary tract diseases are increasingly diagnosed in children. Laparoscopic exploration of the common bile duct (LCBDE) followed by laparoscopic cholecystectomy has gained popularity in children. The aim of this study was to investigate the outcomes of LCBDE in children and compare them with the treatment outcomes of previously used endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP).

METHODS

From January 2000 to January 2022, a total of 84 children (78.5% female) underwent laparoscopic cholecystectomy with a median follow-up of 11.4 (IQR 8, 14) years. Of these, 6 children underwent laparoscopic cholecystectomy (LC) + ERCP and 14 children underwent LCBDE for choledochiothiasis. The primary end point of the study was the success of treatment in terms of the incidence of complications, recurrence rate, and rate of reoperation. Secondary endpoints were stone characteristics, presenting symptoms, duration of surgery, and length of hospital stay.

RESULTS

The majority of patients were female in both groups (83.5% vs. 85.7%), mostly overweight with a median BMI of 27.9 kg/m² and 27.4 kg/m², respectively. Obstructive jaundice, colicky pain, acute pancreatitis, and obstruction of the papilla were the most common symptoms in both groups. The majority of patients (68%) had one stone, whereas two or more stones were found in 32% of patients. The median diameter of the common bile duct was 9 mm in both groups. The procedure was successfully completed in all patients in the ERCP group. In the group of patients treated with LCBDE, endoscopic extraction of the stone with a Dormia basket was successfully performed in ten patients (71.4%), while in the remaining four patients (28.6%) the stones were fragmented with a laser because extraction with the Dormia basket was not possible. The median operative time was 79 min in the LCBDE group (IQR 68, 98), while it was slightly longer in the ERCP group, 85 min (IQR 74, 105) (p = 0.125). The length of hospital stay was significantly shorter in the LCBDE group (2 vs. 4 days, p = 0.011). No complications occurred in the LCBDE group, while two (40%) complications occurred in the ERCP group: pancreatitis and cholangitis (p = 0.078). During the follow-up period, no conversions, papillotomies, or recurrences were recorded in either group.

CONCLUSIONS

Exploration of the common bile duct and removal of stones by LCBDE is safe and feasible in pediatric patients for the treatment of choledocholithiasis. Through this procedure, choledocholithiasis and cholelithiasis can be treated in a single procedure without papillotomy or fluoroscopy. Compared with LC + ERCP, LCBDE is associated with a shorter hospital stay. The incidence of complications was rather low but not statistically significant.

Etiology, Clinical Presentations, and Short-Term Treatment Outcomes of Extrahepatic Obstructive Jaundice in South-Western Uganda

Background

The diagnosis of extrahepatic obstructive jaundice (EHOJ) remains a challenge and is often made late in low-resource settings. Systematic data are limited on the etiology and prognosis of patients with obstructive jaundice in Uganda. The objective of this study was to determine the etiology, clinical presentations, and short-term treatment outcomes of patients managed for EHOJ at Mbarara Regional Referral Hospital (MRRH) in south-western Uganda.

Methods

Between September 2019 and May 2020, we prospectively enrolled a cohort of patients who presented with EHOJ at MRRH. A pretested, semi-structured data collection tool was used to abstract data from both the study participants and their files.

Results

A total of 72 patients, 42 (58.3%) of whom were male with a median age of 56 (range of 2 months to 95 years) were studied. Forty-two (58.3%) participants had malignancies: Pancreatic head tumors 20 (27.8%), cholangiocarcinoma 13 (18.1%), duodenal cancers 5 (6.94%), and gall bladder cancer 4 (5.6%). The remaining 30 (41.7%) participants had benign etiologies: choledocholithiasis 10 (13.9%), biliary atresia 7 (9.7%), pancreatic pseudo cyst 6 (8.3%), Mirizzi syndrome 5 (6.9%) and 1 (1.4%) each of chronic pancreatitis and choledochal cyst. Sixty-seven (93.1%) patients presented with right upper quadrant tenderness, 65 (90.3%) abdominal pain and 55 (76.3%) clay-colored stool. Cholecystectomy 11 (25.6%) and cholecystojejunostomy + jejunojejunostomy 8 (18.6%) were the commonest procedures performed. Twelve (17.0%) of cases received chemotherapy (epirubicin/cisplatin/capecitabine) for pancreatic head tumors and (gemcitabine/oxaliplatine) for cholangiocarcinoma. Mortality rate was 29.2% in the study, of which malignancy carried the highest mortality 20 (95.24%).

Conclusion

Malignancy was the main cause of EHOJ observed in more than half of the patients. Interventions aimed at early recognition and appropriate referral are key in this population to improve outcomes.

SYMPTOMATIC CHOLELITHIASIS AS THE PRESENTATION OF PEDIATRIC PRIMARY SCLEROSING CHOLANGITIS - CASE SERIES AND LITERATURE REVIEW

BACKGROUND

Primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC) is a rare hepatobiliary disorder, whose etiology remains not fully elucidated. Given how rare PSC is in childhood, until the recent publication of a multicenter international collaboration, even data on its characteristics and natural history were scarce. Symptomatic cholelithiasis has not been previously reported as the presentation of PSC.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was the diagnosis of PSC following the initial unusual presentation with symptomatic cholelithiasis, that followed an atypical clinical course that could not be explained by cholelithiasis alone. A literature review was also conducted.

METHODS

We conducted a retrospective chart review of three patients, who were diagnosed and/or followed at the Clinics Hospital, University of Campinas - Sao Paulo/ Brazil, between 2014 and 2020. Data analyzed included gender, age of presentation, past medical history, imaging findings, laboratory results, endoscopic evaluation, response to medical therapy and follow-up.

RESULTS

Age at time of presentation with cholelithiasis varied from 10 to 12 years. In two of the cases reported, a more subacute onset of symptoms preceded the episode of cholelithiasis. Two patients were managed with cholecystectomy, not followed by any surgical complications, one patient was managed conservatively. Percutaneous liver biopsy was performed in all three cases, showing histological findings compatible with PSC. Associated inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) was not seen in any of the patients. The patients have been followed for a mean time of 3.4 years.

CONCLUSION

PSC and cholelithiasis are both rare in the pediatric population. This study reports on symptomatic cholelithiasis as a presentation of PSC and raises the importance of suspecting an underlying hepatobiliary disorder in children with cholelithiasis without any known predisposing factors and/or that follow an atypical clinical course for cholelithiasis alone.

Cholelithiasis and cholecystitis in children and adolescents: Does this increasing diagnosis require a common guideline for pediatricians and pediatric surgeons?

Background

In contrast to adults, for whom guidelines on the cholelithiasis treatment exist, there is no consistent treatment of pediatric patients with cholelithiasis throughout national and international departments, most probably due to the lack of evidence-based studies.

Methods

We evaluated the German management of pediatric cholelithiasis in a dual approach. Firstly, a retrospective, inter-divisional study was established, comparing diagnostics and therapy of patients of the pediatric surgery department with the management of patients aged < 25 years of the visceral surgery department in our institution over the past ten years. Secondarily, a nation-wide online survey was implemented through the German Society of Pediatric Surgery.

Results

Management of pediatric patients with cholelithiasis was primarily performed by pediatricians in the retrospective analysis (p < 0.001). Pediatric complicated cholelithiasis was not managed acutely in the majority of cases with a median time between diagnosis and surgery of 22 days (range 4 days–8 months vs. 3 days in visceral surgery subgroup (range 0 days–10 months), p = 0.003). However, the outcome remained comparable. The hospital’s own results triggered a nation-wide survey with a response rate of 38%. Primary pediatric medical management of patients was confirmed by 36 respondents (71%). In case of acute cholecystitis, 22% of participants perform a cholecystectomy within 24 h after diagnosis. Open questions revealed that complicated cholelithiasis is managed individually.

Conclusions

The management of pediatric cholelithiasis differs between various hospitals and between pediatricians and pediatric surgeons. Evidence-based large-scale population studies as well as a common guideline may represent very important tools for treating this increasing diagnosis.

Supplementary information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12876-021-01772-y.

Risk factors, manifestations, diagnosis and treatment of cholelithiasis in children

Cholelithiasis in children refers to cholelithiasis or choledocholithiasis in newborns, infants and adolescents, including a series of symptoms and complications related to stones. The incidence rate of cholelithiasis in children is far lower than that in adults. However, the detection rate of cholelithiasis in children has risen in recent years. The aetiology of cholelithiasis in children is complex, and the pathogenesis is still unclear. According to existing studies, cholelithiasis in children may be related to sex and hormones, obesity, drugs, haemolytic diseases, genetic factors, chemokines, abnormal biliary tract formation, ileal surgery, total parenteral nutrition and other factors. In addition, there is a large occurrence of idiopathic cholelithiasis in children with unknown aetiology. The clinical manifestations of cholelithiasis in children are not completely the same as those in adults, mainly due to the different ages and causes. At present, there is no consensus on the clinical treatment of cholelithiasis in children. Follow-up and observation, drug dissolution and surgical treatment are all treatment methods for children with cholelithiasis. This study reviewed the related literature reports of cholelithiasis in children and summarized the risk factors, clinical manifestations, diagnosis and treatment of cholelithiasis in children to improve the understanding, diagnosis, and treatment of cholelithiasis in children.

Pediatric biliary disorders: Multimodality imaging evaluation with clinicopathologic correlation

The spectrum of pathologies affecting the biliary tree in the pediatric population varies depending on the age of presentation. While in utero insults can result in an array of anatomic variants and congenital anomalies in newborns, diverse acquired biliary pathologies are observed in older children. These acquired pathologies display different presentations and consequences than adults. Multimodality imaging assessment of the pediatric biliary system is requisite to establishing an appropriate management plan. Awareness of the imaging features of the various biliary pathologies and conveying clinically actionable information is essential to facilitate appropriate patient management. In this paper, we will illustrate the anatomy and embryology of the pediatric biliary system. Then, we will provide an overview of the imaging modalities used to assess the biliary system. Finally, we will review the unique features of the pediatric biliary pathologies, complemented by histopathologic correlation and discussions of clinical management.

Gallstone Frequency in Children With Celiac Disease

Introduction

Celiac disease (CD) is a chronic autoimmune systemic disease caused by the T cell-driven immune mechanism, which is triggered by gluten in cereals such as wheat, barley, and rye in individuals who have a genetic predisposition. The purpose of the present study was to investigate the frequency of gallstones in children with CD.

Methods

A total of 120 patients who were diagnosed with CD and who were followed-up by the pediatric gastroenterology clinic of the hospital and 100 healthy children were included in the study. The age, gender, hemogram, biochemistry, and abdominal ultrasonography images of the patients were compared. Cases that had gallstones were evaluated in terms of fasting serum lipids, glucose-6-P dehydrogenase, and pyruvate kinase, osmotic fragility, hemoglobin electrophoresis, and peripheral smears. Cases diagnosed with a hematological or metabolic disease were excluded from the study. Celiac serology was examined in terms of CD diagnosis in cases who had gallstones for the first time.

Results

The median age of the patients with CD who were included in the study was eight years (5-12), and the median age of the control group was 10 years (6-13). A total of 48% of the Control Group was female, and 52% were male. No significant differences were detected between the age and gender distribution of the cases. There were no differences between hemogram and biochemical parameters. Gallstones were detected in six (5%) of CD-diagnosed cases, and in three (3%) of the cases in the control group. Two (2/160; 1.3%) of the patients who were referred to our clinic with the diagnosis of gallstones were diagnosed with CD.

Conclusions: Early diagnosis and treatment of CD is important to avoid gallstone development because a gluten-free diet corrects enteropathy significantly in CD. CD must be considered in cases with gallstones.

Complications in pediatric laparoscopic cholecystectomy: systematic review

Laparoscopic cholecystectomy (LC) is the gold standard for surgical management in symptomatic children, but it is not without complications, bile duct injury being among the most feared. This study reviewed the complications of LC in children. MEDLINE/PubMed, CENTRAL and Lilacs were reviewed for LC. Studies in patients ≤ 18 years of age published in English, Portuguese or Spanish were selected by two independent reviewers. Data were collected for patients' characteristics, surgical information, complications, mortality and follow-up. Twenty-four papers were identified and offered 2783 patients. Mean age was 11 years (3 months-18 years). In the 93/2783 (3.3%) complications, single-port procedures were associated with seven (7.5%), 3/4-port with 81 (87.1%) and the number of ports were not specified in five. Routine cholangiography was not part of the protocol in any of the reports. Complications included wound issues (n = 24), perforation (n = 14), bleeds (n = 13), biliary tree complications (n = 9), sickle cell crisis (n = 8), fever (n = 6), leaks (n = 4), pain (n = 3), nausea/emesis (n = 3) and others (n = 9). Two of these patients had a history of obesity and cholecystitis and only two biliary tree lesions were diagnosed intra-operatively. Seventeen cases (18.3%) required re-intervention: 15 surgical and two endoscopic. Issues related to biliary tree included: common bile duct lesion (n = 6), biliary fistula (n = 3), clip dislocation from cystic duct (n = 1), cholangitis (n = 1) and calculus (n = 1). There was no mortality, and the mean follow-up period was 10.3 months (1 month-5 years). LC is safe in children and, although most complications are minor, almost 1/5 complications require interventions, mostly due to bleeding and biliary tree complications. Mortality has not been reported in pediatric LC.

Normalization of Serum Lipase Levels Versus Resolution of Abdominal Pain: A Comparison of Preoperative Management in Children With Biliary Pancreatitis

BACKGROUND

Controversy exists over the timing of cholecystectomy for biliary pancreatitis in children. Some surgeons await normalization of serum lipase levels while others are guided by resolution of abdominal pain; however, there are minimal data to support either practice. We hypothesized that resolution of abdominal pain is equivalent in outcome to awaiting normalization of lipase levels in patients undergoing cholecystectomy for biliary pancreatitis.

METHODS

After institutional review board (IRB) approval, the medical record was retrospectively queried for all cases of cholecystectomy for biliary pancreatitis at our institution from 2007 to 2017. Patients undergoing chemotherapy, admitted for another cause, or who had severe underlying comorbidities like ventilator dependence were excluded. Patients were stratified into two cohorts: those managed preoperatively by normalization of serum lipase levels versus resolution of abdominal pain. Demographics, serum lipase levels, postoperative complications, cost of stay, readmissions, and return to the emergency department were collected and analyzed using multivariate regression.

RESULTS

Seventy-four patients met inclusion: 29 patients had lipase levels trended until normalization compared with 45 patients who had resolution of abdominal pain prior to cholecystectomy. Among the two cohorts there was no statistical difference in age, gender, race, ethnicity, or type of preoperative imaging used. Trended patients were found to have more serum lipase levels tested (8.5 ± 6.2 versus 3.4 ± 2.5, P < 0.0001). The trended lipase cohort was significantly more likely to require preoperative total parenteral nutrition (48% versus 11%, P = 0.007) and consequently a longer time before resuming a diet (10 ± 7.3 versus 4.6 ± 2.4 d, P < 0.0001). When comparing the two groups, we found no significant difference in the duration of surgery, postoperative complications, or readmissions. Lipase trended patients had a significantly longer length of stay compared with nontrended patients (11.5 ± 8.1 versus 4.2 ± 2.3 d, P < 0.0001) and had a higher total cost of stay ($38,094 ± 25,910 versus $20,205 ± 5918, P = 0.0007).

CONCLUSIONS

Our data suggest that in children with biliary pancreatitis, proceeding with cholecystectomy after resolution of abdominal pain is equivalent in outcomes to trending serum lipase levels but is more cost-effective with a decreased length of stay and decreased need for preoperative total parenteral nutrition.

Biliary Tract Disease in Girls and Young Women With Rett Syndrome

OBJECTIVE

We reviewed medical records and conducted a nationwide survey to characterize the clinical features and determine the prevalence of biliary tract disease in girls and women with Rett syndrome (RTT).

METHODS

Sixty-two individuals with RTT and biliary tract disease were identified from the membership of Rett Syndrome Organization and patient files of the principal investigator. Medical records of 46 individuals were reviewed for presenting features, diagnostic tests, and treatment outcomes of biliary tract disease. We designed a questionnaire that probed the frequency of risk factors and treatment outcomes of biliary tract disease in RTT. The questionnaire was completed by 271 parents whose daughters met the clinical criteria for RTT and/or had MECP2 mutations and participated in the Natural History of Rett Syndrome Study.

RESULTS

Presenting symptoms identified by record review included abdominal pain (94%), irritability (88%), weight loss (64%), and vomiting (52%). Biliary dyskinesia, cholecystitis, and cholelithiasis were identified in 90%, 77%, and 70%, respectively, by cholescintigraphy, surgical pathology, and abdominal ultrasound. The prevalence of biliary tract disease was 4.4% (n = 12) in the RTT cohort. Risk factors included older age (P < 0.001) and a positive family history (P < 0.01). Diagnoses included cholecystitis (n = 5), biliary dyskinesia (n = 6), and cholelithiasis (n = 7). Ten individuals underwent surgery; 7 had resolution of symptoms after surgical intervention.

CONCLUSIONS

Biliary tract disease is not unique to RTT, but may be under-recognized because of the cognitive impairment of affected individuals. Early diagnostic evaluation and intervention may improve the health and quality of life of individuals affected with RTT and biliary tract disease.

Risk Factors of Cholelithiasis Unrelated to Hematological Disorders in Pediatric Patients Undergoing Cholecystectomy

BACKGROUND

Pediatric cholelithiasis unrelated to hematological disorders is an increasing disease. We analyzed our experience in the surgical treatment of these cases to evaluate risk factors, clinical presentation, intervention and follow-up.

METHODS

From January 2010 to December 2016, we retrospectively recorded all data (hematological study, familiarity, use of lithogenic drugs and parenteral nutrition) of cholecystectomies for cholelithiasis not related to hematological diseases. The body mass index (BMI) was calculated (obesity if > 25), medical treatment, surgery and follow-up were evaluated. All patients underwent ultrasound for diagnosis and major biliary tract assessment prior to surgery. All patients had a 1-year follow-up.

RESULTS

There were twenty-four cases (eight males), with a median age of 11.2 years. Predisposing factors were familiarity in 19, use of lithogenic drugs in 5 and total parental nutrition (TPN) in 3. Median BMI was 19.8 kg/m2, with BMI > 25 kg/m2 in eight cases. Regarding the clinical presentation, 14 had acute pain in the right upper quadrant, 5 had cholecystitis and 5 had non-specific abdominal pain. The medical treatment lasted 6 months in all, except for five (three operated after 2 months and two after 12 months). Preoperative ultrasound did not show stones in the biliary tract. MRI was performed in three cases for suspected malformation of the biliary tract (negative). Laparoscopic cholecystectomy was performed in all cases: mean intervention time was 95 min. A case of postcolecystectomy syndrome was found. At follow-up, all were asymptomatic, except two (recurrent abdominal pain).

CONCLUSION

Main predisposing factors are familiarity and obesity. Preoperative ultrasound in our series replaced the intraoperative study of the biliary tract. Laparoscopic cholecystectomy is the gold standard.