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Liu Y, Cai H, Wang D, Liao S, Qi N, Li J, Yan Z, Shen H, Fang S, Lv M, Lin X, Song Y, Hu J, Zhu Y, Chen X, Yin L, Zhang J, Guo Y, Sun M. Genotypic diversity and epidemiology of Trichomonas gallinae in Columbidae: Insights from a comprehensive analysis. Int J Parasitol Parasites Wildl 2024; 23:100918. [PMID: 38468816 PMCID: PMC10926119 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijppaw.2024.100918] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2023] [Revised: 02/18/2024] [Accepted: 02/18/2024] [Indexed: 03/13/2024]
Abstract
Trichomonas gallinae is a protozoa that parasitizes the upper gastrointestinal and respiratory tracts of various animals and birds, including Columbidae, Passeriformes, and Falconiformes. Polymerase chain reaction-based T. gallinae ITS1/5.8S/ITS2 gene typing yields inconsistent results owing to methodological differences. To standardize the statistical analysis of T. gallinae genotype distributions, this study employed MEGA-X software with the Tamamura 3-parameter (T92) + G model in the neighbor-joining method, with 2,000 bootstrap replicates, to calculate a systematic evolutionary tree. The resulting tree comprised 12 branches, ITS-OBT-Tg-1 to ITS-OBT-Tgl, with similar phylogenetic relationships. Relevant literature review yielded T. gallinae prevalence data in Columbidae. Statistical analysis was conducted from two perspectives: non-biological and biological factors, using chi-square tests and ordered logistic regression analysis. T. gallinae positivity rates differed significantly across diverse regions (χ2 = 4,609.9, P = 0.000, df = 4) and at various times (χ2 = 2,810.8, P = 0.000, df = 3). However, temperature and precipitation did not significantly affect T. gallinae positivity rates. Additionally, T. gallinae positivity rates differed significantly among diverse hosts (χ2 = 2,958.6, P = 0.000, df = 14) and by host age (χ2 = 478.5, P = 0.000, df = 2) and sex (χ2 = 96.00, P = 0.000, df = 1). This comprehensive analysis aimed to control T. gallinae transmission, reduce economic and species resource losses, and provide a foundation for future related research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Liu
- Key Laboratory of Livestock Disease Prevention of Guangdong Province, Key Laboratory of Avian Influenza and Other Major Poultry Diseases Prevention and Control, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Institute of Animal Health, Guangdong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Guangzhou, 510640, China
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agriculture University, Guangzhou, 510642, Guangdong, China
| | - Haiming Cai
- Key Laboratory of Livestock Disease Prevention of Guangdong Province, Key Laboratory of Avian Influenza and Other Major Poultry Diseases Prevention and Control, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Institute of Animal Health, Guangdong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Guangzhou, 510640, China
| | - Dingai Wang
- Wen's Group Academy, Wen's Foodstuffs Group Co., Ltd., Xinxing, Guangdong, 527400, China
| | - Shenquan Liao
- Key Laboratory of Livestock Disease Prevention of Guangdong Province, Key Laboratory of Avian Influenza and Other Major Poultry Diseases Prevention and Control, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Institute of Animal Health, Guangdong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Guangzhou, 510640, China
| | - Nanshan Qi
- Key Laboratory of Livestock Disease Prevention of Guangdong Province, Key Laboratory of Avian Influenza and Other Major Poultry Diseases Prevention and Control, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Institute of Animal Health, Guangdong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Guangzhou, 510640, China
| | - Juan Li
- Key Laboratory of Livestock Disease Prevention of Guangdong Province, Key Laboratory of Avian Influenza and Other Major Poultry Diseases Prevention and Control, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Institute of Animal Health, Guangdong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Guangzhou, 510640, China
| | - Zhuanqiang Yan
- Wen's Group Academy, Wen's Foodstuffs Group Co., Ltd., Xinxing, Guangdong, 527400, China
| | - Hanqin Shen
- Wen's Group Academy, Wen's Foodstuffs Group Co., Ltd., Xinxing, Guangdong, 527400, China
| | - Siyun Fang
- Wen's Group Academy, Wen's Foodstuffs Group Co., Ltd., Xinxing, Guangdong, 527400, China
| | - Minna Lv
- Key Laboratory of Livestock Disease Prevention of Guangdong Province, Key Laboratory of Avian Influenza and Other Major Poultry Diseases Prevention and Control, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Institute of Animal Health, Guangdong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Guangzhou, 510640, China
| | - Xuhui Lin
- Key Laboratory of Livestock Disease Prevention of Guangdong Province, Key Laboratory of Avian Influenza and Other Major Poultry Diseases Prevention and Control, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Institute of Animal Health, Guangdong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Guangzhou, 510640, China
| | - Yongle Song
- Key Laboratory of Livestock Disease Prevention of Guangdong Province, Key Laboratory of Avian Influenza and Other Major Poultry Diseases Prevention and Control, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Institute of Animal Health, Guangdong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Guangzhou, 510640, China
| | - Junjing Hu
- Key Laboratory of Livestock Disease Prevention of Guangdong Province, Key Laboratory of Avian Influenza and Other Major Poultry Diseases Prevention and Control, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Institute of Animal Health, Guangdong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Guangzhou, 510640, China
| | - Yibin Zhu
- Key Laboratory of Livestock Disease Prevention of Guangdong Province, Key Laboratory of Avian Influenza and Other Major Poultry Diseases Prevention and Control, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Institute of Animal Health, Guangdong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Guangzhou, 510640, China
| | - Xiangjie Chen
- Key Laboratory of Livestock Disease Prevention of Guangdong Province, Key Laboratory of Avian Influenza and Other Major Poultry Diseases Prevention and Control, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Institute of Animal Health, Guangdong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Guangzhou, 510640, China
| | - Lijun Yin
- Key Laboratory of Livestock Disease Prevention of Guangdong Province, Key Laboratory of Avian Influenza and Other Major Poultry Diseases Prevention and Control, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Institute of Animal Health, Guangdong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Guangzhou, 510640, China
| | - Jianfei Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Livestock Disease Prevention of Guangdong Province, Key Laboratory of Avian Influenza and Other Major Poultry Diseases Prevention and Control, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Institute of Animal Health, Guangdong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Guangzhou, 510640, China
| | - Yaqiong Guo
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agriculture University, Guangzhou, 510642, Guangdong, China
| | - Mingfei Sun
- Key Laboratory of Livestock Disease Prevention of Guangdong Province, Key Laboratory of Avian Influenza and Other Major Poultry Diseases Prevention and Control, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Institute of Animal Health, Guangdong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Guangzhou, 510640, China
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Smith WJ, Jezierski MT, Dunn JC, Clegg SM. Parasite exchange and hybridisation at a wild-feral-domestic interface. Int J Parasitol 2023; 53:797-808. [PMID: 37474096 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpara.2023.06.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2023] [Revised: 05/27/2023] [Accepted: 06/06/2023] [Indexed: 07/22/2023]
Abstract
Interactions between wild, feral, and domestic animals are of economic and conservation significance. The pigeon Columba livia is a synanthropic species in a feral form, but it also includes the rare Rock Dove. Columba livia is an important player at the wild-domestic interface, acting as a carrier of avian diseases, and the feral form threatens Rock Doves with extinction via hybridisation. Despite its abundance, little is known about drivers of disease prevalence in C. livia, or how disease and hybridisation represent synergistic threats to Rock Doves. We focused on infection by the parasite Trichomonas, first collating prevalence estimates in domestic and free-living populations from relevant studies of C. livia. Second, we characterised variation in the diversity and prevalence of Trichomonas among three C. livia populations in the United Kingdom: a feral, a Rock Dove, and a feral-wild hybrid population. Across multiple continents, free-living pigeons had lower Trichomonas infection than captive conspecifics, but the effect was weak. Environmental factors which could impact Trichomonas infection status did not explain variation in infection among populations. Among the British populations, strain diversity varied, and there was lower parasite prevalence in Rock Doves than feral pigeons. Individual infection status was not explained by the available covariates, including hybrid score and site. The drivers of Trichomonas prevalence are unclear, perhaps due to idiosyncratic local-scale drivers. However, given the population-level variation in both infection prevalence and introgressive hybridisation, the potential combined effects could accelerate the extinction of the Rock Dove. Further study of the synergistic effects of multiple types of biotic interactions at the wild-feral-domestic interface is warranted, especially where vagile, globally distributed and superabundant animals are involved.
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Affiliation(s)
- William J Smith
- Edward Grey Institute of Field Ornithology, Department of Biology, University of Oxford, UK.
| | - Michał T Jezierski
- Edward Grey Institute of Field Ornithology, Department of Biology, University of Oxford, UK
| | - Jenny C Dunn
- School of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Lincoln, UK; School of Biology, University of Leeds, UK
| | - Sonya M Clegg
- Edward Grey Institute of Field Ornithology, Department of Biology, University of Oxford, UK
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3
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Tuska-Szalay B, Sipos G, Takács N, Kontschán J, Sándor AD, Péter Á, Berta K, Kerek Á, Jerzsele Á, Votýpka J, Hornok S. Molecular epidemiological study of Trichomonas gallinae focusing on central and southeastern Europe. Front Vet Sci 2022; 9:1050561. [PMID: 36590811 PMCID: PMC9798426 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2022.1050561] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2022] [Accepted: 11/18/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Trichomonas gallinae is a geographically widespread protozoan parasite of birds. In this study, oropharyngeal swab samples were collected in Hungary and Romania from 99 columbiform birds, including 76 feral pigeons (Columba livia domestica: 42 kept for racing, 32 with urban and two with rural habitat), four common wood pigeons (C. palumbus), 16 ring doves (Streptopelia risoria) and three Eurasian collared doves (S. decaocto). These samples were analyzed for the presence of T. gallinae using molecular methods. Racing feral pigeons had significantly higher prevalence of T. gallinae infection than urban feral pigeons. The rate of PCR-positivity was the highest among wood pigeons and ring doves. Based on 18S rRNA gene, T. gallinae was the most heterogenous among racing feral pigeons sampled in a trading-breeding place. Clinical signs were associated with only one 18S rRNA gene subtype. The most divergent 18S rRNA gene subtype, Trichomonas sp. Hu-TG37 clustered with T. canistomae and T. tenax and represents probably a new species. To our knowledge, this is the first report on the genetic diversity of T. gallinae in the southeastern European region. The results suggest that most detected T. gallinae 18S rRNA gene subtypes are not host-specific and do not cause clinical signs. The highest number of 18S rRNA gene subtypes was demonstrated among racing feral pigeons. Significantly more captive than free-living columbiform birds had T. gallinae infection. These data highlight the importance of epizootic monitoring of the genetic diversity and presence of T. gallinae in trading-breeding places of pigeons and doves.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barbara Tuska-Szalay
- Department of Parasitology and Zoology, University of Veterinary Medicine, Budapest, Hungary,*Correspondence: Barbara Tuska-Szalay
| | - Gábor Sipos
- Department of Parasitology and Zoology, University of Veterinary Medicine, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Nóra Takács
- Department of Parasitology and Zoology, University of Veterinary Medicine, Budapest, Hungary,ELKH-ÁTE Climate Change: New Blood-Sucking Parasites and Vector-Borne Pathogens Research Group, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Jenő Kontschán
- Centre for Agricultural Research, Plant Protection Institute, ELKH, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Attila D. Sándor
- Department of Parasitology and Zoology, University of Veterinary Medicine, Budapest, Hungary,ELKH-ÁTE Climate Change: New Blood-Sucking Parasites and Vector-Borne Pathogens Research Group, Budapest, Hungary,Department of Parasitology and Parasitic Diseases, University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| | - Áron Péter
- Department of Parasitology and Parasitic Diseases, University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| | | | - Ádám Kerek
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Veterinary Medicine, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Ákos Jerzsele
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Veterinary Medicine, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Jan Votýpka
- Biology Centre, Institute of Parasitology, Czech Academy of Sciences, České Budějovice, Czechia,Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Prague, Czechia
| | - Sándor Hornok
- Department of Parasitology and Zoology, University of Veterinary Medicine, Budapest, Hungary,ELKH-ÁTE Climate Change: New Blood-Sucking Parasites and Vector-Borne Pathogens Research Group, Budapest, Hungary
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Chen DQ, Luo XY, Li QQ, Pan JC, Zhang H, Gu YY, Kan ZZ, Huang JM, Fang Z, Liu XC, Gu YF, Li WC. Molecular prevalence of Tetratrichomonas gallinarum and Trichomonas gallinae in three domestic free-range poultry breeds in Anhui Province, China. Parasitol Res 2022; 121:2841-2848. [PMID: 35939147 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-022-07617-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2022] [Accepted: 07/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Tetratrichomonas gallinarum and Trichomonas gallinae can colonize the alimentary tract of domestic birds. However, little information is available on the epidemiology of the two trichomonad species in domestic free-range poultry in China. In this study, the occurrence and genetic characteristic of T. gallinarum and T. gallinae among free-range chickens, ducks, and geese in Anhui Province, China, were investigated. The 1910 fecal samples collected from 18 free-range poultry farms throughout Anhui Province were examined for the presence of T. gallinarum and T. gallinae by PCR and sequence analysis of the small subunit (SSU) rRNA gene of T. gallinarum and ITS1-5.8S-ITS2 sequence of T. gallinae. The overall occurrence of T. gallinarum in poultry was 1.2% (22/1910), with infection rates of 2.1% (17/829) in chickens, 0.2% (1/487) in ducks, and 0.7% (4/594) in geese. The constructed phylogeny tree using the concatenated ITS1-5.8S-ITS2 region and SSU rRNA indicated the T. gallinarum isolates detected in this study were closely related to previously defined genogroups A, D, and E, respectively. Nine (0.5%) fecal samples were positive for T. gallinae, with infection rates of 0.8% (7/829) in chickens, 0.4% (2/487) in ducks, and 0% (0/594) in geese. Sequence and phylogenetic analysis showed that four T. gallinae ITS1-5.8S-ITS2 sequences obtained from chicken feces and one duck fecal sample belonged to genotype ITS-OBT-Tg-1. This is the first report of the prevalence and genetic characterization of T. gallinarum and T. gallinae in free-range chickens, ducks, and geese in China.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dong-Qian Chen
- Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Animal Nutritional Regulation and Health, College of Animal Science, Anhui Science and Technology University, Fengyang, Chuzhou, 233100, People's Republic of China
| | - Xin-Yu Luo
- Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Animal Nutritional Regulation and Health, College of Animal Science, Anhui Science and Technology University, Fengyang, Chuzhou, 233100, People's Republic of China
| | - Qiao-Qiao Li
- Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Animal Nutritional Regulation and Health, College of Animal Science, Anhui Science and Technology University, Fengyang, Chuzhou, 233100, People's Republic of China
| | - Jin-Chao Pan
- Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Animal Nutritional Regulation and Health, College of Animal Science, Anhui Science and Technology University, Fengyang, Chuzhou, 233100, People's Republic of China
| | - Hen Zhang
- Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Animal Nutritional Regulation and Health, College of Animal Science, Anhui Science and Technology University, Fengyang, Chuzhou, 233100, People's Republic of China
| | - Yue-Yue Gu
- Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Animal Nutritional Regulation and Health, College of Animal Science, Anhui Science and Technology University, Fengyang, Chuzhou, 233100, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhen-Zhen Kan
- Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Animal Nutritional Regulation and Health, College of Animal Science, Anhui Science and Technology University, Fengyang, Chuzhou, 233100, People's Republic of China
| | - Jia-Min Huang
- Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Animal Nutritional Regulation and Health, College of Animal Science, Anhui Science and Technology University, Fengyang, Chuzhou, 233100, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhui Fang
- Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Animal Nutritional Regulation and Health, College of Animal Science, Anhui Science and Technology University, Fengyang, Chuzhou, 233100, People's Republic of China
| | - Xin-Chao Liu
- Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Animal Nutritional Regulation and Health, College of Animal Science, Anhui Science and Technology University, Fengyang, Chuzhou, 233100, People's Republic of China
| | - You-Fang Gu
- Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Animal Nutritional Regulation and Health, College of Animal Science, Anhui Science and Technology University, Fengyang, Chuzhou, 233100, People's Republic of China
| | - Wen-Chao Li
- Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Animal Nutritional Regulation and Health, College of Animal Science, Anhui Science and Technology University, Fengyang, Chuzhou, 233100, People's Republic of China.
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Sigrist B, Ng TWC, Albini S, Wolfrum N. A new duplex real-time PCR for simultaneous detection and differentiation of Tetratrichomonas gallinarum and Trichomonas gallinae. J Vet Diagn Invest 2022; 34:631-637. [PMID: 35593583 DOI: 10.1177/10406387221098069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Tetratrichomonas gallinarum and Trichomonas gallinae are pathogenic avian parasites that infect a wide range of bird species. The pathologic potential of T. gallinarum is controversial, whereas T. gallinae causes disease in many avian species. Infections are often asymptomatic in doves and pigeons; thus, columbids are presumed to represent the natural hosts for trichomonads. The detection of T. gallinarum and T. gallinae is based on direct microscopic observation or a conventional PCR assay. Microscopy is not very sensitive, and identification of the trichomonads at the genus or species level is not possible. Conventional PCR assays have been developed primarily for phylogenetic studies, which detect a wide range of Trichomonas spp. but do not allow their differentiation. We developed a duplex real-time PCR (rtPCR) assay for the simultaneous detection and differentiation of T. gallinarum and T. gallinae. We found that the rtPCR assay detected 102 plasmid DNA copies of T. gallinarum and as few as 101 plasmid DNA copies of T. gallinae.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brigitte Sigrist
- Department of Poultry and Rabbit Diseases, Institute for Food Safety and Hygiene, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - T W Cherry Ng
- Department of Poultry and Rabbit Diseases, Institute for Food Safety and Hygiene, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Sarah Albini
- Department of Poultry and Rabbit Diseases, Institute for Food Safety and Hygiene, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Nina Wolfrum
- Department of Poultry and Rabbit Diseases, Institute for Food Safety and Hygiene, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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Trichomonosis in Austrian Songbirds—Geographic Distribution, Pathological Lesions and Genetic Characterization over Nine Years. Animals (Basel) 2022; 12:ani12101306. [PMID: 35625152 PMCID: PMC9137778 DOI: 10.3390/ani12101306] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2022] [Revised: 05/12/2022] [Accepted: 05/17/2022] [Indexed: 12/10/2022] Open
Abstract
In the early summer of 2012, sudden mass mortality among songbirds, particularly in greenfinches (Chloris chloris, syn: Carduelis chloris) was observed in Austria, which was caused by the protozoan parasite Trichomonas gallinae. This pathogen induced fibrinonecrotic ingluvitis and/or esophagitis, leading to impairment of food intake and ultimately death due to starvation. The pathogen was successfully detected within the lesions by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and chromogenic in situ hybridization. The epizootic resulted in a significant decline in the Austrian greenfinch population. Continuing passive surveillance in the subsequent years (2013–2020) revealed that the condition occurred each year and was present in the entire country. Genetic characterization of the pathogen showed the presence of an identical strain irrespective of geographical location, bird species, and year.
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Thomas RC, Dunn JC, Dawson DA, Hipperson H, Horsburgh GJ, Morris AJ, Orsman C, Mallord J, Grice PV, Hamer KC, Eraud C, Hervé L, Goodman SJ. Assessing rates of parasite coinfection and spatiotemporal strain variation via metabarcoding: insights for the conservation of European Turtle Doves
Streptopelia turtur. Mol Ecol 2022; 31:2730-2751. [PMID: 35253301 PMCID: PMC9325524 DOI: 10.1111/mec.16421] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2020] [Revised: 02/15/2022] [Accepted: 03/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Understanding the frequency, spatiotemporal dynamics and impacts of parasite coinfections is fundamental to developing control measures and predicting disease impacts. The European turtle dove (Streptopelia turtur) is one of Europe's most threatened bird species. High prevalence of infection by the protozoan parasite Trichomonas gallinae has previously been identified, but the role of this and other coinfecting parasites in turtle dove declines remains unclear. Using a high‐throughput sequencing approach, we identified seven strains of T. gallinae, including two novel strains, from ITS1/5.8S/ITS2 ribosomal sequences in turtle doves on breeding and wintering grounds, with further intrastrain variation and four novel subtypes revealed by the iron‐hydrogenase gene. High spatiotemporal turnover was observed in T. gallinae strain composition, and infection was prevalent in all populations (89%–100%). Coinfection by multiple Trichomonas strains was rarer than expected (1% observed compared to 38.6% expected), suggesting either within‐host competition, or high mortality of coinfected individuals. In contrast, coinfection by multiple haemosporidians was common (43%), as was coinfection by haemosporidians and T. gallinae (90%), with positive associations between strains of T. gallinae and Leucocytozoon suggesting a mechanism such as parasite‐induced immune modulation. We found no evidence for negative associations between coinfections and host body condition. We suggest that longitudinal studies involving the recapture and investigation of infection status of individuals over their lifespan are crucial to understand the epidemiology of coinfections in natural populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca C. Thomas
- School of Biology Irene Manton Building University of Leeds Leeds LS2 9JT UK
- NERC Biomolecular Analysis Facility Department of Animal and Plant Sciences University of Sheffield Western Bank Sheffield S10 2TN UK
| | - Jenny C. Dunn
- RSPB Centre for Conservation Science Royal Society for the Protection of Birds The Lodge Potton Road, Sandy Bedfordshire SG19 2DL UK
- School of Life Sciences University of Lincoln Joseph Banks Laboratories Lincoln LN6 7TS UK
| | - Deborah A. Dawson
- NERC Biomolecular Analysis Facility Department of Animal and Plant Sciences University of Sheffield Western Bank Sheffield S10 2TN UK
| | - Helen Hipperson
- NERC Biomolecular Analysis Facility Department of Animal and Plant Sciences University of Sheffield Western Bank Sheffield S10 2TN UK
| | - Gavin J. Horsburgh
- NERC Biomolecular Analysis Facility Department of Animal and Plant Sciences University of Sheffield Western Bank Sheffield S10 2TN UK
| | - Antony J. Morris
- RSPB Centre for Conservation Science Royal Society for the Protection of Birds The Lodge Potton Road, Sandy Bedfordshire SG19 2DL UK
| | - Chris Orsman
- RSPB Centre for Conservation Science Royal Society for the Protection of Birds The Lodge Potton Road, Sandy Bedfordshire SG19 2DL UK
| | - John Mallord
- RSPB Centre for Conservation Science Royal Society for the Protection of Birds The Lodge Potton Road, Sandy Bedfordshire SG19 2DL UK
| | - Philip V. Grice
- Natural England, Suite D Unex House Bourges Boulevard, Peterborough PE1 1NG UK
| | - Keith C. Hamer
- School of Biology Irene Manton Building University of Leeds Leeds LS2 9JT UK
| | - Cyril Eraud
- Office National de la Chasse et de la Faune Sauvage. Unité Avifaune migratrice Réserve de Chizé 405 Carrefour de la Canauderie 79360 Villiers‐en‐Bois France
| | - Lormée Hervé
- Office National de la Chasse et de la Faune Sauvage. Unité Avifaune migratrice Réserve de Chizé 405 Carrefour de la Canauderie 79360 Villiers‐en‐Bois France
| | - Simon J. Goodman
- School of Biology Irene Manton Building University of Leeds Leeds LS2 9JT UK
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Landman WJM, Gantois N, Sawant M, Majoor FA, van Eck JHH, Viscogliosi E. Prevalence of trichomonads in the cloaca of wild wetland birds in the Netherlands. Avian Pathol 2021; 50:465-476. [PMID: 34463603 DOI: 10.1080/03079457.2021.1967876] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Severe granulomatosis in productive layer chickens due to Tetratrichomonas gallinarum strain 13/16632 infection occurred in 2013 and 2017 on farms situated in a wetland area in the Netherlands. We hypothesized that wetland birds could be the source of the infection. Therefore, a prevalence study on trichomonads was performed by analysing cloaca swabs of 526 birds belonging to 13 species of wetland birds. The number of birds sampled ranged from 1 to 275 per species. Birds were sampled at 15 locations in the Netherlands. DNA extracted from the cloaca swabs was subjected to nested PCR using trichomonad-specific primers targeting the internal transcribed spacer 1 (ITS1)-5.8S rRNA-ITS2 region followed by cloning and sequencing. In nine bird species, trichomonads were detected; the overall prevalence was 9% (47/526), while the prevalence in the five species for which a substantial number of birds were examined (at least 39 per species) ranged from 4% to 24%. Three trichomonad species were found: T. gallinarum, Trichomonas tenax and Simplicimonas sp. of which T. gallinarum dominated. The virulent T. gallinarum strain 13/16632 was not detected, but closely related strains were. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that all T. gallinarum isolates belonged to two clusters within lineage 15 of Tetratrichomonas lineages. All T. tenax isolates were identical and clustered with reference strain H95, while Simplicimonas sp. isolates showed large genetic diversity. Some isolates may represent a new species of the genus Simplicimonas. We conclude that trichomonads are widespread amongst wetland birds, raising the question, amongst others, of their relevance for commercial poultry. RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTSTrichomonads occur among wild wetland birds in the Netherlands.T. gallinarum is the dominant trichomonad species in the cloaca of wetland birds.Some T. gallinarum isolates are closely related to a strain causing granulomas in layer chickens.Some isolates may represent a new species of the genus Simplicimonas.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - N Gantois
- Université de Lille, CNRS, Inserm, CHU Lille, Institut Pasteur de Lille, U1019-UMR 9017-CIIL-Centre d'Infection et d'Immunité de Lille, Lille, France
| | - M Sawant
- Université de Lille, CNRS, Inserm, CHU Lille, Institut Pasteur de Lille, U1019-UMR 9017-CIIL-Centre d'Infection et d'Immunité de Lille, Lille, France
| | - F A Majoor
- SOVON Vogelonderzoek Nederland, Nijmegen, Netherlands
| | - J H H van Eck
- Department of Population Health Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - E Viscogliosi
- Université de Lille, CNRS, Inserm, CHU Lille, Institut Pasteur de Lille, U1019-UMR 9017-CIIL-Centre d'Infection et d'Immunité de Lille, Lille, France
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To get sick or not to get sick-Trichomonas infections in two Accipiter species from Germany. Parasitol Res 2021; 120:3555-3567. [PMID: 34480593 PMCID: PMC8460582 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-021-07299-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2021] [Accepted: 08/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/02/2022]
Abstract
Trichomonosis caused by the flagellate Trichomonas gallinae is one of the most important avian diseases worldwide. The parasite is localised in the oesophageal area of its host and mainly infects pigeon and dove species. During the last decade, a host expansion to passerine birds occurred, making the disease a potential threat for passerine predators as naïve host species. Here, we investigated the effect of the parasite on two Accipiter species in Germany which show a comparable lifestyle but differ in prey choice, the Northern goshawk (Accipiter gentilis) mainly hunting pigeons and the Eurasian sparrowhawk (Accipiter nisus) mainly feeding on passerines. We genetically identified the parasite strains using the Fe-Hydrogenase gene as marker locus and compared the incidence of parasite presence and clinical signs of trichomonosis between nestlings of the two Accipiter species. In total, we identified 14 strains, with nine strains unknown so far. There was a higher strain diversity and prevalence of Trichomonas spp. in goshawks than sparrowhawks (42.4% vs. 21.2%) whereas sparrowhawks when being infected more often displayed clinical signs of trichomonosis than goshawks (37.1% vs. 6.1%). Even though sparrowhawks were mainly infected with the finch epidemic strain and genetic data indicated some variation between isolates, no correlation with virulence could be detected. All in all, goshawks seem to be better adapted to Trichomonas infections, whereas to sparrowhawks, this is a novel disease with more severe manifestations, from individual morbidity to a higher risk of population decline caused by trichomonosis.
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Martínez-Herrero MC, Sansano-Maestre J, Azami-Conesa I, González-González F, Suárez Regalado L, Garijo-Toledo MM, Gómez-Muñoz MT. Sequence subtyping of Trichomonas gallinae from Bonelli's eagle ( Aquila fasciata) during four years (2014-2017) reveals that MLS type is associated with lesions. Avian Pathol 2021; 50:339-349. [PMID: 34126819 DOI: 10.1080/03079457.2021.1940099] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Avian trichomonosis is a parasitic disease that affects wild birds. The objective of this work was to determine the importance of avian trichomonosis in Bonelli's eagles to improve conservation measures in this population. One hundred and eighty-eight birds were studied: 181 chicks, two juveniles, one subadult and four adults. The birds were externally examined and gross lesions at the oropharynx registered. Samples from the oropharyngeal cavity were obtained for Trichomonas spp. detection by culture and PCR, and positive samples were subjected to a multilocus sequence typing approach, including the ITS1/5.8S/ITS2 region (ITS), ribosomal RNA small subunit (18S) and Fe-hydrogenase gene (FeHyd). Global prevalence of T. gallinae infection was 37.8% in total, 45.5% in nestlings. Thirty-three percent of the birds developed lesions that ranged from mild (n = 41) to moderate (n = 14) or severe (n = 7). Multilocus sequence typing analysis showed five different MLS types, ITS-A/18S-VI/FeHyd-A1 and ITS-D/18S-II/Fe-C4 being the most frequent. An association between ITS-A/18S-VI/FeHyd-A1 and moderate or severe lesions was observed, but birds with type ITS-A/18S-VI/FeHyd-A2 also developed lesions. On the contrary, birds with MLS type ITS-D/18S-II/FeHyd-C4 displayed only a low proportion of mild lesions. Chicks raised in nests were at higher risk for T. gallinae infection and development of lesions than chicks raised in captivity. Discordances between samples cultured in TYM and samples subjected to PCR from oropharyngeal swabs were observed, swab-ITS-PCR being more sensitive.RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS45.5% of Bonelli's eagles in the nest carried T. gallinae and 39.4% showed lesions.PCR from oral swabs showed higher sensitivity than culture in TYM for detection of T. gallinae.MLS types ITS-A/18S-VI/Fe-A1 (and A2) are a risk factor for the development of lesions.
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Affiliation(s)
- M C Martínez-Herrero
- Parasitology and Parasitic Diseases Research Group (PARAVET). Department of Animal Production and Health, Public Veterinary Health and Food Science and Technology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universidad Cardenal Herrera-CEU, CEU Universities, Alfara del Patriarca, Valencia, Spain
| | - J Sansano-Maestre
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Experimental Sciences, Universidad Católica de Valencia Valencia, Spain
| | - I Azami-Conesa
- Departament of Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Madrid, Spain
| | - F González-González
- Group of Rehabilitation of the Autochtonous Fauna and their Habitat (GREFA) Majadahonda, Madrid, Spain
| | - L Suárez Regalado
- Group of Rehabilitation of the Autochtonous Fauna and their Habitat (GREFA) Majadahonda, Madrid, Spain
| | - M M Garijo-Toledo
- Parasitology and Parasitic Diseases Research Group (PARAVET). Department of Animal Production and Health, Public Veterinary Health and Food Science and Technology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universidad Cardenal Herrera-CEU, CEU Universities, Alfara del Patriarca, Valencia, Spain
| | - M T Gómez-Muñoz
- Departament of Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Madrid, Spain
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11
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Lind MA, Sepp T, Štšeglova K, Hõrak P. Antibiotic treatment increases yellowness of carotenoid feather coloration in male greenfinches (Chloris chloris). Sci Rep 2021; 11:13235. [PMID: 34168219 PMCID: PMC8225797 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-92598-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2021] [Accepted: 06/04/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Carotenoid plumage coloration is an important sexually selected trait in many bird species. However, the mechanisms ensuring the honesty of signals based on carotenoid pigments remain unclear. It has recently been suggested that intestinal integrity, which is affected by gut parasites and microbiota and influences nutrient absorption and acquisition, mediates the relationship between carotenoid ornamentation and individual quality. Here, we test whether carotenoid plumage coloration in greenfinches (Chloris chloris) is affected by the treatment of an antibiotic or an antiparasitic drug. We captured wild greenfinches (N = 71) and administered anticoccidial medication toltrazuril (TOLTRA) to one group, antibiotic metronidazole (METRO) to the second group to target trichomonosis, and the third group received no medication. In the METRO group, feathers grown during the experiment had significantly higher chroma of yellow parts, but there was no effect of TOLTRA on feather chroma. The results suggest that METRO increased the efficiency of carotenoid modification or deposition to the feathers rather than nutrient acquisition and/or freed energy resources that could be invested in coloration. Alternatively, though not measured, METRO might have affected microbial community and host physiology as microbial metabolites can modulate mitochondrial and immune function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mari-Ann Lind
- Institute of Ecology and Earth Sciences, University of Tartu, Vanemuise 46, 51014, Tartu, Estonia.
| | - Tuul Sepp
- Institute of Ecology and Earth Sciences, University of Tartu, Vanemuise 46, 51014, Tartu, Estonia
| | - Kristiina Štšeglova
- Institute of Ecology and Earth Sciences, University of Tartu, Vanemuise 46, 51014, Tartu, Estonia
| | - Peeter Hõrak
- Institute of Ecology and Earth Sciences, University of Tartu, Vanemuise 46, 51014, Tartu, Estonia
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12
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Dmytrenko G, Tana L, Cachau MV, Bravo M, Gonzalez S, Correa F, Fernandez-Solari J, De Laurentiis A. Presence of Trichomonas spp. in oral ulcerations of a patient with kidney transplant. A case report. J Clin Exp Dent 2020; 12:e1201-e1205. [PMID: 33282143 PMCID: PMC7700792 DOI: 10.4317/jced.56922] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2020] [Accepted: 08/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Mucosal ulcerations are an oral complication that can often affect kidney transplant patients, mostly due to the effect of immunosuppression. It has been frequently reported drug-induced ulceration or lymphoproliferative disorders with buccal manifestations however, some unusual disorders should also be considered, such as fungal infections, viruses, as well as opportunistic infection by other microorganisms. Determining the etiology and differential diagnose from other causes of mouth ulcers is very important for the adequate treatment of said lesion. Dental health of patients should also be taken into the account prior to the transplant surgery, since periodontal pockets are the main niche of microbial reservoir. Moreover, mixed with oral microbiota, parasites such as Trichomonas spp. can be found in the dental plaque of patients with periodontal disease. Particularly, Trichomonas spp. are anaerobic motile-flagellated protozoa that can both induce tissue damage and exacerbate preexistent injuries in vaginal and oral mucosa. Parasitic infection in the oral cavity has not been well studied and it is thought to be underreported. In the present study we report the first case in literature of presence of Trichomonas spp. as a potential etiological factor of the oral ulcerations of a kidney transplanted patient that remitted after antibiotic treatment. Key words:Immunosuppression, protozoan, buccal lesion, oral mucosa, kidney transplant.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ganna Dmytrenko
- Centre of Pharmacological and Botanical Studies, CEFYBO-CONICET-UBA, School of Medicine, University of Buenos Aires, Argentina.,Physiology Dept., School of Dentistry, University of Buenos Aires, Argentina.,National Scientific and Technical Research Council (CONICET), Argentina
| | - Lorena Tana
- High Complexity Transplant Institute, Nephrology Argentina
| | | | - Martín Bravo
- High Complexity Transplant Institute, Nephrology Argentina
| | - Silvina Gonzalez
- Stomatology Dept., José de San Martín Clinical Hospital, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Fernando Correa
- Centre of Pharmacological and Botanical Studies, CEFYBO-CONICET-UBA, School of Medicine, University of Buenos Aires, Argentina.,National Scientific and Technical Research Council (CONICET), Argentina
| | - Javier Fernandez-Solari
- Physiology Dept., School of Dentistry, University of Buenos Aires, Argentina.,National Scientific and Technical Research Council (CONICET), Argentina
| | - Andrea De Laurentiis
- Centre of Pharmacological and Botanical Studies, CEFYBO-CONICET-UBA, School of Medicine, University of Buenos Aires, Argentina.,Physiology Dept., School of Dentistry, University of Buenos Aires, Argentina.,National Scientific and Technical Research Council (CONICET), Argentina
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13
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A SYBR green I real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assay for detection and quantification of Trichomonas gallinae. Parasitol Res 2020; 119:3909-3913. [PMID: 32960370 PMCID: PMC7577908 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-020-06887-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2020] [Accepted: 09/13/2020] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
Trichomonas gallinae are parasitic flagellates of importance in wild and domestic birds. The parasite is worldwide distributed, and Columbine birds are its main host. Current research focuses mostly on epidemiological and phylogenetic studies. However, there is still a lack of knowledge regarding parasite-host interaction or therapy development. Real-time PCR is a useful tool for diagnostic and quantification of gene copies in a determined sample. By amplification of a 113-bp region of the 18S small subunit ribosomal RNA gene, a SYBR green-based real-time PCR assay was developed. A standard curve was prepared for quantification analysis. Assay efficiency, linearity, and dissociation analysis were successfully performed. Specificity, sensibility, and reproducibility analysis were tested. This assay could be a useful tool not only for diagnostic purposes but also for future in vivo and in vitro T. gallinae studies.
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Martínez-Herrero MC, Sansano-Maestre J, Ortega J, González F, López-Márquez I, Gómez-Muñoz MT, Garijo-Toledo MM. Oral trichomonosis: Description and severity of lesions in birds in Spain. Vet Parasitol 2020; 283:109196. [PMID: 32731053 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2020.109196] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2020] [Revised: 07/21/2020] [Accepted: 07/22/2020] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Avian trichomonosis is a parasitic disease caused by the flagellated protozoan Trichomonas gallinae. Columbiformes are the reservoir host of the parasite, with high levels of infection, but also other domestic and wild birds from a variety of orders are susceptible to the infection and development of gross lesions. In this paper we describe the type and severity of lesions in wild birds in four avian orders (Accipitriformes, Falconiformes, Strigiformes and Columbiformes). A total of 94 clinical cases diagnosed of trichomonosis were selected for the categorization of their lesions in the upper digestive tract. The affected birds were classified into three different categories (mild, moderate and severe) based on size (in relation to the tracheal opening), depth and location of the lesions. Mild cases are those with small and superficial lesions far from the oropharyngeal opening; moderate cases possess larger and deeper lesions, and severe cases very large and deep lesions that impede swallowing or affect the skull. Mild lesions were found in 10.6 % of cases; moderate lesions were observed in 18.1 % of the birds and severe lesions in 71.3 %. Treatment outcomes in birds with either mild or moderate lesions were favorable, while severe lesions were related to poor body score, leading to death or euthanasia in most cases. A relationship between severe lesions and avian order was found, with a higher percentage of birds with this type in Falconiformes, Columbiformes and Strigiformes. Multifocal lesions were more frequent in Columbiformes and Falconiformes. In Strigiformes, 93.3 % of birds showed lesions in the upper jaw. This study seeks to further understanding of avian trichomonosis and to provide information that will be useful to veterinarians and related professionals for assessment, prognosis and treatment choice for these birds.
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Affiliation(s)
- M C Martínez-Herrero
- Department of Animal and Health Production, Public Health and Food Science and Technology, Faculty of Veterinary, Universidad Cardenal Herrera-CEU, CEU Universities, Calle Tirant lo Blanc, 7, 46115, Alfara del Patriarca, Spain.
| | - J Sansano-Maestre
- Department of Animal Production and Public Health, Faculty of Experimental and Veterinary Sciences, Catholic University of Valencia, Calle Guillem de Castro, 94, 46003, Valencia, Spain.
| | - J Ortega
- Department of Animal and Health Production, Public Health and Food Science and Technology, Faculty of Veterinary, Universidad Cardenal Herrera-CEU, CEU Universities, Calle Tirant lo Blanc, 7, 46115, Alfara del Patriarca, Spain.
| | - F González
- GREFA - Grupo de Rehabilitación de la Fauna Autóctona y su Hábitat, Wildlife Veterinary Hospital, Carretera Monte del Pilar, s/n, 28220, Majadahonda, Spain.
| | - I López-Márquez
- GREFA - Grupo de Rehabilitación de la Fauna Autóctona y su Hábitat, Wildlife Veterinary Hospital, Carretera Monte del Pilar, s/n, 28220, Majadahonda, Spain.
| | - M T Gómez-Muñoz
- Department of Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, Complutense University of Madrid, Av. Puerta de Hierro, s/n, 28040, Madrid, Spain.
| | - M M Garijo-Toledo
- Department of Animal and Health Production, Public Health and Food Science and Technology, Faculty of Veterinary, Universidad Cardenal Herrera-CEU, CEU Universities, Calle Tirant lo Blanc, 7, 46115, Alfara del Patriarca, Spain.
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15
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Niedringhaus KD, Burchfield HJ, Elsmo EJ, Cleveland CA, Fenton H, Shock BC, Muise C, Brown JD, Munk B, Ellis A, Hall RJ, Yabsley MJ. Trichomonosis due to Trichomonas gallinae infection in barn owls (Tyto alba) and barred owls (Strix varia) from the eastern United States. VETERINARY PARASITOLOGY- REGIONAL STUDIES AND REPORTS 2019; 16:100281. [PMID: 31027606 DOI: 10.1016/j.vprsr.2019.100281] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2018] [Revised: 02/26/2019] [Accepted: 03/04/2019] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Trichomonosis is an important cause of mortality in multiple avian species; however, there have been relatively few reports of this disease in owls. Two barn owls (Tyto alba) and four barred owls (Strix varia) submitted for diagnostic examination had lesions consistent with trichomonosis including caseous necrosis and inflammation in the oropharynx. Microscopically, these lesions were often associated with trichomonads and molecular testing, if obtainable, confirmed the presence of Trichomonas gallinae, the species most commonly associated with trichomonosis in birds. The T. gallinae genotype in one barn owl and two barred owls was identified as ITS-OBT-Tg-1 by sequence analysis. Columbids are the primary hosts for T. gallinae, and columbid remains found within the nest box of the barn owls were the likely source of infection. This study is the first to formally describe the strains and genetic variation of T. gallinae samples from clinical cases of trichomonosis in barn and barred owls in the eastern USA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin D Niedringhaus
- Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, 589 D.W. Brooks Drive, Wildlife Health Building, College of Veterinary Medicine, The University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA.
| | - Holly J Burchfield
- Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, 589 D.W. Brooks Drive, Wildlife Health Building, College of Veterinary Medicine, The University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA
| | - Elizabeth J Elsmo
- Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, 589 D.W. Brooks Drive, Wildlife Health Building, College of Veterinary Medicine, The University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA.
| | - Christopher A Cleveland
- Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, 589 D.W. Brooks Drive, Wildlife Health Building, College of Veterinary Medicine, The University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA; Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources, 180 E Green Street, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA
| | - Heather Fenton
- Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, 589 D.W. Brooks Drive, Wildlife Health Building, College of Veterinary Medicine, The University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA.
| | - Barbara C Shock
- Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, 589 D.W. Brooks Drive, Wildlife Health Building, College of Veterinary Medicine, The University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA.
| | - Charlie Muise
- Georgia Bird Study Group, Barnesville, GA 30204, USA
| | - Justin D Brown
- Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, 589 D.W. Brooks Drive, Wildlife Health Building, College of Veterinary Medicine, The University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA.
| | - Brandon Munk
- Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, 589 D.W. Brooks Drive, Wildlife Health Building, College of Veterinary Medicine, The University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA.
| | - Angela Ellis
- Antech Diagnostics, 1111 Marcus Ave., Suite M28, Bldg 5B, Lake Success, NY 11042, USA.
| | - Richard J Hall
- Odum School of Ecology and Department of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA.
| | - Michael J Yabsley
- Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, 589 D.W. Brooks Drive, Wildlife Health Building, College of Veterinary Medicine, The University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA; Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources, 180 E Green Street, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA.
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