Prevalence of infection by the microsporidian Nosema spp. in native bumblebees (Bombus spp.) in northern Thailand

The Role of Pathogens in Bumblebee Decline: A Review

Bumblebees, the most important wild pollinators in both agricultural and natural ecosystems, are declining worldwide. The global decline of bumblebees may threaten biodiversity, pollination services, and, ultimately, agricultural productivity. Several factors, including pesticide usage, climate change, habitat loss, and species invasion, have been documented in the decline of bumblebee species, but recent studies have revealed the dominating role of pathogens and parasites over any of these causes. Unfortunately, there is a lack of a full understanding of the role of pathogens and parasites in the decline of bumblebee species. The current study provides a comprehensive review of how pathogens and parasites contribute to the decline of bumblebee species. The study also explores the prevalence of each pathogen and parasite within bumblebee populations. Furthermore, we address the synergistic effects of pathogens and other stressors, such as pesticides, climatic effects, and habitat loss, on bumblebee populations. To summarize, we propose possible conservation and management strategies to preserve the critical role of bumblebees in pollination services and thus to support ecosystem and agricultural health.

Opportunities and Challenges in Applying AI to Evolutionary Morphology

Artificial intelligence (AI) is poised to revolutionize many aspects of science, including the study of evolutionary morphology. While classical AI methods such as principal component analysis and cluster analysis have been commonplace in the study of evolutionary morphology for decades, recent years have seen increasing application of deep learning to ecology and evolutionary biology. As digitized specimen databases become increasingly prevalent and openly available, AI is offering vast new potential to circumvent long-standing barriers to rapid, big data analysis of phenotypes. Here, we review the current state of AI methods available for the study of evolutionary morphology, which are most developed in the area of data acquisition and processing. We introduce the main available AI techniques, categorizing them into 3 stages based on their order of appearance: (1) machine learning, (2) deep learning, and (3) the most recent advancements in large-scale models and multimodal learning. Next, we present case studies of existing approaches using AI for evolutionary morphology, including image capture and segmentation, feature recognition, morphometrics, and phylogenetics. We then discuss the prospectus for near-term advances in specific areas of inquiry within this field, including the potential of new AI methods that have not yet been applied to the study of morphological evolution. In particular, we note key areas where AI remains underutilized and could be used to enhance studies of evolutionary morphology. This combination of current methods and potential developments has the capacity to transform the evolutionary analysis of the organismal phenotype into evolutionary phenomics, leading to an era of "big data" that aligns the study of phenotypes with genomics and other areas of bioinformatics.

Infection Prevalence of Microsporidia Vairimorpha (Nosema) spp. in Japanese Bumblebees

Microsporidia are spore-forming intracellular parasites of various invertebrates and vertebrates. Vairimorpha bombi negatively affects the fitness of bumblebees and its prevalence correlates with declining bumblebee populations. The invasive alien species Bombus terrestris colonized Japan and possibly introduced new parasites. To assess the infection prevalence of V. bombi in Japanese bumblebees and B. terrestris, we investigated V. bombi infections using PCR and microscopy. The prevalence of sporulating V. bombi infections in three Bombus s. str. species/subspecies was low, whereas that of non/low-sporulating Vairimorpha sp. infections in three Diversobombus species/subspecies was high. Invasive B. terrestris showed low prevalence of non/low-sporulating V. bombi infections and shared the same V. bombi haplotype with B. hypocrita found in Hokkaido, where B. terrestris is present, and in Honshu, where B. terrestris is absent. Although V. bombi may have been introduced with B. terrestris colonies imported from Europe, it seems to be originally distributed in Japan. Furthermore, a new Vairimorpha sp. was found in Japanese bumblebee species. V. bombi and Vairimorpha sp. showed different organ and host specificities in bumblebees. There are no reports on the specific effects of other Vairimorpha spp. on bumblebees; further studies are needed to clarify the individual characteristics of Vairimorpha spp.

Endosymbionts that threaten commercially raised and wild bumble bees (Bombus spp.)

Bumble bees (Bombus spp.) are important pollinators for both wild and agriculturally managed plants. We give an overview of what is known about the diverse community of internal potentially deleterious bumble bee symbionts, including viruses, bacteria, protozoans, fungi, and nematodes, as well as methods for their detection, quantification, and control. We also provide information on assessment of risk for select bumble bee symbionts and highlight key knowledge gaps. This information is crucial for ongoing efforts to establish parasite- conscious programs for future commerce in bumble bees for crop pollination, and to mitigate the problems with pathogen spillover to wild populations.

Preliminary Survey of Pathogens in the Asian Honey Bee (Apis cerana) in Thailand

Widespread parasites, along with emerging threats, globalization, and climate change, have greatly affected honey bees' health, leading to colony losses worldwide. In this study, we investigated the detection of biotic stressors (i.e., viruses, microsporidian, bacteria, and fungi) in Apis cerana by surveying the colonies across different regions of Thailand (Chiang Mai in the north, Nong Khai and Khon Kaen in the northeast, and Chumphon and Surat Thani in the south, in addition to the Samui and Pha-ngan islands). In this study, we detected ABPV, BQCV, LSV, and Nosema ceranae in A. cerana samples through RT-PCR. ABPV was only detected from the samples of Chiang Mai, whereas we found BQCV only in those from Chumphon. LSV was detected only in the samples from the Samui and Pha-ngan islands, where historically no managed bees are known. Nosema ceranae was found in all of the regions except for Nong Khai and Khon Kaen in northeastern Thailand. Paenibacillus larvae and Ascosphaera apis were not detected in any of the A. cerana samples in this survey. The phylogenetic tree analysis of the pathogens provided insights into the pathogens' movements and their distribution ranges across different landscapes, indicating the flow of pathogens among the honey bees. Here, we describe the presence of emerging pathogens in the Asian honey bee as a valuable step in our understanding of these pathogens in terms of the decline in eastern honey bee populations.

Identification of pathogens in the invasive hornet Vespa velutina and in native Hymenoptera (Apidae, Vespidae) from SW-Europe

Invasive species contribute to deteriorate the health of ecosystems due to their direct effects on native fauna and the local parasite-host dynamics. We studied the potential impact of the invasive hornet Vespa velutina on the European parasite-host system by comparing the patterns of diversity and abundance of pathogens (i.e. Microsporidia: Nosematidae; Euglenozoa: Trypanosomatidae and Apicomplexa: Lipotrophidae) in European V. velutina specimens with those in the native European hornet Vespa crabro, as well as other common Hymenoptera (genera Vespula, Polistes and Bombus). We show that (i) V. velutina harbours most common hymenopteran enteropathogens as well as several new parasitic taxa. (ii) Parasite diversity in V. velutina is most similar to that of V. crabro. (iii) No unambiguous evidence of pathogen release by V. velutina was detected. This evidence together with the extraordinary population densities that V. velutina reaches in Europe (around of 100,000 individuals per km² per year), mean that this invasive species could severely alter the native pathogen-host dynamics either by actively contributing to the dispersal of the parasites and/or by directly interacting with them, which could have unexpected long-term harmful consequences on the native entomofauna.

The largest meta-analysis on the global prevalence of microsporidia in mammals, avian and water provides insights into the epidemic features of these ubiquitous pathogens

BACKGROUND

Microsporidia are obligate intracellular parasites that can infect nearly all invertebrates and vertebrates, posing a threat to public health and causing large economic losses to animal industries such as those of honeybees, silkworms and shrimp. However, the global epidemiology of these pathogens is far from illuminated.

METHODS

Publications on microsporidian infections were obtained from PubMed, Science Direct and Web of Science and filtered according to the Newcastle-Ottawa Quality Assessment Scale. Infection data about pathogens, hosts, geography and sampling dates were manually retrieved from the publications and screened for high quality. Prevalence rates and risk factors for different pathogens and hosts were analyzed by conducting a meta-analysis. The geographic distribution and seasonal prevalence of microsporidian infections were drawn and summarized according to sampling locations and date, respectively.

RESULTS

Altogether, 287 out of 4129 publications up to 31 January 2020 were obtained and met the requirements, from which 385 epidemiological data records were retrieved and effective. The overall prevalence rates in humans, pigs, dogs, cats, cattle, sheep, nonhuman primates and fowl were 10.2% [2429/30,354; 95% confidence interval (CI) 9.2-11.2%], 39.3% (2709/5105; 95% CI 28.5-50.1%), 8.8% (228/2890; 95% CI 5.1-10.1%), 8.1% (112/1226; 95% CI 5.5-10.8%), 16.6% (2216/12,175; 95% CI 13.5-19.8%), 24.9% (1142/5967; 95% CI 18.6-31.1%), 18.5% (1388/7009; 95% CI 13.1-23.8%) and 7.8% (725/9243; 95% CI 6.4-9.2%), respectively. The higher prevalence in pigs suggests that routine detection of microsporidia in animals should be given more attention, considering their potential roles in zoonotic disease. The highest rate was detected in water, 58.5% (869/1351; 95% CI 41.6-75.5%), indicating that water is an important source of infections. Univariate regression analysis showed that CD4+ T cell counts and the living environment are significant risk factors for humans and nonhuman primates, respectively. Geographically, microsporidia have been widely found in 92 countries, among which Northern Europe and South Africa have the highest prevalence. In terms of seasonality, the most prevalent taxa, Enterocytozoon bieneusi and Encephalitozoon, display different prevalence trends, but no significant difference between seasons was observed. In addition to having a high prevalence, microsporidia are extremely divergent because 728 genotypes have been identified in 7 species. Although less investigated, microsporidia coinfections are more common with human immunodeficiency virus and Cryptosporidium than with other pathogens.

CONCLUSIONS

This study provides the largest-scale meta-analysis to date on microsporidia prevalence in mammals, birds and water worldwide. The results suggest that microsporidia are highly divergent, widespread and prevalent in some animals and water and should be further investigated to better understand their epidemic features.

Wide diversity of parasites in Bombus terrestris (Linnaeus, 1758) revealed by a high-throughput sequencing approach

Assessing the extent of parasite diversity requires the application of appropriate molecular tools, especially given the growing evidence of multiple parasite co-occurrence. Here, we compared the performance of a next-generation sequencing technology (Ion PGM ™ System) in 12 Bombus terrestris specimens that were PCR-identified as positive for trypanosomatids (Leishmaniinae) in a previous study. These bumblebees were also screened for the occurrence of Nosematidae and Neogregarinorida parasites using both classical protocols (either specific PCR amplification or amplification with broad-range primers plus Sanger sequencing) and Ion PGM sequencing. The latter revealed higher parasite diversity within individuals, especially among Leishmaniinae (which were present as a combination of Lotmaria passim, Crithidia mellificae and Crithidia bombi), and the occurrence of taxa never reported in these hosts: Crithidia acanthocephali and a novel neogregarinorida species. Furthermore, the complementary results produced by the different sets of primers highlighted the convenience of using multiple markers to minimize the chance of some target organisms going unnoticed. Altogether, the deep sequencing methodology offered a more comprehensive way to investigate parasite diversity than the usual identification methods and provided new insights whose importance for bumblebee health should be further analysed.

Nosema ceranae causes cellular immunosuppression and interacts with thiamethoxam to increase mortality in the stingless bee Melipona colimana

The microsporidian parasite Nosema ceranae and neonicotinoid insecticides affect the health of honey bees (Apis mellifera). However, there is limited information about the effect of these stressors on other pollinators such as stingless bees (Hymenoptera: Meliponini). We examined the separate and combined effects of N. ceranae and the neonicotinoid thiamethoxam at field-exposure levels on the survivorship and cellular immunity (hemocyte concentration) of the stingless bee Melipona colimana. Newly-emerged bees were subjected to four treatments provided in sucrose syrup: N. ceranae spores, thiamethoxam, thiamethoxam and N. ceranae, and control (bees receiving only syrup). N. ceranae developed infections of > 467,000 spores/bee in the group treated with spores only. However, in the bees subjected to both stressors, infections were < 143,000 spores/bee, likely due to an inhibitory effect of thiamethoxam on the microsporidium. N. ceranae infections did not affect bee survivorship, but thiamethoxam plus N. ceranae significantly increased mortality. Hemocyte counts were significantly lower in N. ceranae infected-bees than in the other treatments. These results suggest that N. ceranae may infect, proliferate and cause cellular immunosuppression in stingless bees, that exposure to sublethal thiamethoxam concentrations is toxic to M. colimana when infected with N. ceranae, and that thiamethoxam restrains N. ceranae proliferation. These findings have implications on pollinators' conservation.

Dominant bee species and floral abundance drive parasite temporal dynamics in plant-pollinator communities

Pollinator reductions can leave communities less diverse and potentially at increased risk of infectious diseases. Species-rich plant and bee communities have high species turnover, making the study of disease dynamics challenging. To address how temporal dynamics shape parasite prevalence in plant and bee communities, we screened >5,000 bees and flowers over an entire growing season for five common bee microparasites (Nosema ceranae, Nosema bombi, Crithidia bombi, Crithidia expoeki and neogregarines). Over 110 bee species and 89 flower species were screened, revealing that 42% of bee species (12.2% individual bees) and 70% of flower species (8.7% individual flowers) had at least one parasite in or on them, respectively. Some common flowers (for example, Lychnis flos-cuculi) harboured multiple parasite species whilst others (for example, Lythrum salicaria) had few. Significant temporal variation of parasite prevalence in bees was linked to bee diversity, bee and flower abundance and community composition. Specifically, we found that bee communities had the highest prevalence late in the season, when social bees (Bombus spp. and Apis mellifera) were dominant and bee diversity was lowest. Conversely, prevalence on flowers was lowest late in the season when floral abundance was highest. Thus turnover in the bee community impacted community-wide prevalence, and turnover in the plant community impacted when parasite transmission was likely to occur at flowers. These results imply that efforts to improve bee health will benefit from the promotion of high floral numbers to reduce transmission risk, maintaining bee diversity to dilute parasites and monitoring the abundance of dominant competent hosts.

Susceptibility of Red Mason Bee Larvae to Bacterial Threats Due to Microbiome Exchange with Imported Pollen Provisions

Solitary bees are subject to a variety of pressures that cause severe population declines. Currently, habitat loss, temperature shifts, agrochemical exposure, and new parasites are identified as major threats. However, knowledge about detrimental bacteria is scarce, although they may disturb natural microbiomes, disturb nest environments, or harm the larvae directly. To address this gap, we investigated 12 Osmia bicornis nests with deceased larvae and 31 nests with healthy larvae from the same localities in a 16S ribosomal RNA (rRNA) gene metabarcoding study. We sampled larvae, pollen provisions, and nest material and then contrasted bacterial community composition and diversity in healthy and deceased nests. Microbiomes of pollen provisions and larvae showed similarities for healthy larvae, whilst this was not the case for deceased individuals. We identified three bacterial taxa assigned to Paenibacillus sp. (closely related to P. pabuli/amylolyticus/xylanexedens), Sporosarcina sp., and Bacillus sp. as indicative for bacterial communities of deceased larvae, as well as Lactobacillus for corresponding pollen provisions. Furthermore, we performed a provisioning experiment, where we fed larvae with untreated and sterilized pollens, as well as sterilized pollens inoculated with a Bacillus sp. isolate from a deceased larva. Untreated larval microbiomes were consistent with that of the pollen provided. Sterilized pollen alone did not lead to acute mortality, while no microbiome was recoverable from the larvae. In the inoculation treatment, we observed that larval microbiomes were dominated by the seeded bacterium, which resulted in enhanced mortality. These results support that larval microbiomes are strongly determined by the pollen provisions. Further, they underline the need for further investigation of the impact of detrimental bacterial acquired via pollens and potential buffering by a diverse pollen provision microbiome in solitary bees.

Rapid Gastrointestinal Passage May Protect Bombus terrestris from Becoming a True Host for Nosema ceranae

Pollination provided by managed honey bees as well as by all the wild bee species is a crucial ecosystem service contributing to the conservation of biodiversity and human food security. Therefore, it is not only the health status of honey bees but also the health status of wild bees that concerns us all. In this context, recent field studies suggesting interspecies transmission of the microsporidium parasite Nosema ceranae from honey bees (Apis mellifera) to bumblebees (Bombus spp.) were alarming. On the basis of these studies, N. ceranae was identified as an emerging infectious agent (EIA) of bumblebees, although knowledge of its impact on its new host was still elusive. In order to investigate the infectivity, virulence, and pathogenesis of N. ceranae infections in bumblebees, we performed controlled laboratory exposure bioassays with Bombus terrestris by orally inoculating the bees with infectious N. ceranae spores. We comprehensively analyzed the infection status of the bees via microscopic analysis of squash preparations, PCR-based detection of N. ceranae DNA, histology of Giemsa-stained tissue sections, and species-specific fluorescence in situ hybridization. We did not find any evidence for a true infection of bumblebees by N. ceranae Through a series of experiments, we ruled out the possibility that spore infectivity, spore dosage, incubation time, or age and source of the bumblebees caused these negative results. Instead, our results clearly demonstrate that no infection and production of new spores took place in bumblebees after they ingested N. ceranae spores in our experiments. Thus, our results question the classification of N. ceranae as an emerging infectious agent for bumblebees.IMPORTANCE Emerging infectious diseases (EIDs) pose a major health threat to both humans and animals. EIDs include, for instance, those that have spread into hitherto naive populations. Recently, the honey bee-specific microsporidium Nosema ceranae has been detected by molecular methods in field samples of bumblebees. This detection of N. ceranae DNA in bumblebees led to the assumption that N. ceranae infections represent an EID of bumblebees and resulted in speculations on the role of this pathogen in driving bumblebee declines. In order to address the issue of whether N. ceranae is an emerging infectious agent for bumblebees, we experimentally analyzed host susceptibility and pathogen reproduction in this new host-pathogen interaction. Surprisingly, we did not find any evidence for a true infection of Bombus terrestris by N. ceranae, questioning the classification of N. ceranae infections as EIDs of bumblebees and demonstrating that detection of microsporidian DNA does not equal detection of microsporidian infection.

Impact of Biotic and Abiotic Stressors on Managed and Feral Bees

Large-scale declines in bee abundance and species richness over the last decade have sounded an alarm, given the crucial pollination services that bees provide. Population dips have specifically been noted for both managed and feral bee species. The simultaneous increased cultivation of bee-dependent agricultural crops has given rise to additional concern. As a result, there has been a surge in scientific research investigating the potential stressors impacting bees. A group of environmental and anthropogenic stressors negatively impacting bees has been isolated. Habitat destruction has diminished the availability of bee floral resources and nest habitats, while massive monoculture plantings have limited bee access to a variety of pollens and nectars. The rapid spread and increased resistance buildup of various bee parasites, pathogens, and pests to current control methods are implicated in deteriorating bee health. Similarly, many pesticides that are widely applied on agricultural crops and within beehives are toxic to bees. The global distribution of honey bee colonies (including queens with attendant bees) and bumble bee colonies from crop to crop for pollination events has been linked with increased pathogen stress and increased competition with native bee species for limited resources. Climatic alterations have disrupted synchronous bee emergence with flower blooming and reduced the availability of diverse floral resources, leading to bee physiological adaptations. Interactions amongst multiple stressors have created colossal maladies hitting bees at one time, and in some cases delivering additive impacts. Initiatives including the development of wild flower plantings and assessment of pesticide toxicity to bees have been undertaken in efforts to ameliorate current bee declines. In this review, recent findings regarding the impact of these stressors on bees and strategies for mitigating them are discussed.