In vivo three-dimensional kinematics of the cervical spine during maximal active head rotation

An in vivo 3-dimensional kinematics study of the cervical vertebrae under physiological loads in patients with cervical spondylosis

BACKGROUND CONTEXT

Studies of in vivo kinematic differences between healthy individuals and those with cervical spondylosis (CS) have been reported, but only movements under nonphysiological loads have been investigated. Differences in the in vivo, cervical kinematics between healthy individuals and those with CS are unknown.

PURPOSE

To investigate the in vivo, cervical kinematics of patients with CS under physiological loads.

STUDY DESIGN

This was a retrospective, case-controlled study that used three-dimensional (3D) to 3D registration techniques combined with conical beam computed tomography (CBCT) to investigate the cervical kinematics of patients with CS.

PATIENT SAMPLE

Twenty individuals diagnosed with CS were selected for study participation and matched with 20 participants who did not have CS and were in good health.

OUTCOME MEASURES

Pfirrmann grading, intervertebral range of motion (ROM), kinematics and cross-sectional area of posterior neck muscles (CAPNM).

METHODS

All study participants underwent seven CBCT scans of their cervical vertebrae. The 3D segmental motion features of the vertebra in vivo were calculated using 3D-to-3D volume registration to overlay images of the vertebra at each functional position. The 3D range of motion (ROM) of each cervical segment was expressed with six degrees of freedom using Euler angles and translated onto a coordinate system. A kinematic subgroup analysis was conducted based on the severity of symptoms within the CS group, and differences in muscle volume between the CS and control groups were also evaluated. Project supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 81960408,82260445), Key Project of Jiangxi Provincial Natural Science Foundation (Grant No. 20242BAB26125), Clinical Cultivation Project of The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanchang University (Grant No. YFYLCYJPY 20220203).The authors declare no conflict of interest in preparing this article.

RESULTS

The CS group exhibited noticeable reductions in the primary rotational ROMs of left-right rotation at C4-C5, C5-C6, C6-C7, C4-C7, and C1-C7 compared to the controls. During left-right bending, there were no significant differences in the primary ROMs, coupled translations, or rotations between the two groups. However, compared to controls, the CS group had significantly lower primary ROMs for C4-C7, C1-C7 and C5-C6 during flexion-extension. During left-right rotation, the primary rotations and coupled lateral bending at C6-C7 were significantly increased in the mild CS group compared to the moderate CS group. In the mild CS group, the primary ROM of the C4-C5 and C5-C6 during flexion-extension was significantly greater than that of the moderate CS group.

CONCLUSIONS

For the first time, the in vivo 3D kinematics of the cervical spine during head movement under physiological load in CS individuals have been adequately described and compared with healthy cervical vertebrae, which can be used as a reference point for future studies. The application of CBCT helps to obtain accurate and precise movement information of CS patients and effectively enhance the evaluation results obtained from imaging information.

The diagnostic validity of the cervical side bend-rotation test for C 1/2 dysfunction

INTRODUCTION

Neck pain and headaches are common, with a reported lifetime prevalence of up to 66%. Upper cervical segmental dysfunction has been implicated as meaningful in neck pain and multiple headache types. Several tests have been described to assess upper cervical joint dysfunction, including the flexion-rotation test (FRT), the side bend-rotation test (SBRT), and joint play assessment (PA). The purpose of this study was to determine the diagnostic validity of the SBRT to detect C1-2 dysfunction in a sample of people with medically diagnosed sinus headaches and controls.

METHODS

Design: prospective diagnostic accuracy study, occurring during an observational case-control study in a sample of individuals with medically diagnosed sinus headaches. All participants were assessed using the SBRT, FRT, and C1-2 joint play assessments. The diagnostic accuracy of the SBRT was assessed using a reference standard of concurrent positive FRT (a loss of at least 10° from expected ROM (≤34°)) and restriction of C1-2 joint play. Cut-off scores for the SBRT were determined using ROC curve analysis, and tests of diagnostic accuracy were calculated using 2 × 2contingency tables.

RESULTS

A total of 80 individuals (40 headache, 64 female, mean age 32.9 ± 13.8 yrs.) were included in the study. Mean ROM for the tests was: SBRT 31.4 ± 9.4°, FRT 44.9 ± 9.5°, and C1-2 mobility 22 hypomobile/58 normal. An SBRT cutoff score of <25° was confirmed using ROC curves. Using this cutoff score, the SBRT demonstrated 100% sensitivity and 62% specificity to detect C1-2 hypomobility.

DISCUSSION/CONCLUSION

The SBRT, using a cutoff score of ≤25°, appears to be a sensitive test to detect C1-2 dysfunction. Based on the strong sensitivity and negative predictive values, scores greater than 25° may effectively rule-out C1-2 dysfunction. The SBRT should be considered as part of a sequential clinical decision-making process when screening for C1-2 dysfunction, although further research is required to improve generalizability of these findings.

Knowledge, attitude, and practice toward cervical spondylosis among the healthy general population

BACKGROUND

This study aimed to investigate the knowledge, attitude and practice (KAP) of the healthy general population toward cervical spondylosis.

METHODS

A cross-sectional study was conducted among healthy individuals at Peking University Third Hospital between May and December 2023, utilizing a self-designed questionnaire.

RESULTS

A total of 506 valid questionnaires were collected, of which 276 (64.94%) were completed by females. The mean scores for knowledge, attitudes, and practices were 4.07 ± 1.24 (range: 0-8), 35.69 ± 3.67 (range: 9-45), and 27.01 ± 4.38 (range: 9-36), respectively. Structural equation modeling (SEM) revealed that knowledge had a direct influence on both attitudes (β = 0.589, P = 0.002) and practices (β = 0.353, P = 0.020). Furthermore, attitudes had a direct effect on practices (β = 0.442, P < 0.001).

CONCLUSION

The healthy general population demonstrated inadequate knowledge, a positive attitude, and suboptimal practices regarding cervical spondylosis. These findings highlight the need for targeted educational interventions to improve public awareness and foster healthier practices in managing cervical spondylosis.

Two-screw osteosynthesis is biomechanically superior to single-screw osteosynthesis for type II odontoid fractures

The data on the use of a one- or two-screw technique (1S, 2S) for ventral osteosynthesis of type II dens fractures are contradictory. The aim was to design an apparatus to mimic the physiological conditions and test stability with 1S, 2S, and a headless compression screw (HCS) for osteosynthesis of artificially created type II odontoid fractures. The apparatus was mounted on a Zwick materials testing machine. A total of 18 C1-2 specimens were stratified into three groups (1S, 2S, HCS). Odontoid fractures were artificially created, and osteosynthesis was performed. Each specimen was tested at loads increasing from 1 to 40 N. Screw loosening was observed visually, by fatigue data, and by a camera tracking system. Analysis of the Zwick data and the camera data revealed a significant higher stability after 2S compared to 1S and HCS treatment (Zwick data: p = 0.021, camera data: p < 0.001), while visible screw loosening showed a superiority of the 2S only over HCS (p = 0.038). The developed apparatus allowed the dynamic study of the atlantoaxial joint with a high approximation to physiological conditions. The results demonstrated superiority of the 2S over the 1S and HCS in biomechanical stability in the treatment of type II odontoid fractures.

Coupled rotation patterns in cervical spine axial rotation can change when the head is kept level

The biomechanical literature describes axial rotation occurring coupled with lateral bending and flexion in the cervical spine. Since the head is kept level during some activities of daily living, we set out to investigate the changes in total and segmental motion that occur when a level gaze constraint is applied to cadaveric cervical spine specimens during axial rotation. 1.5Nm of left and right axial rotation moment was applied to sixteen C2-T1 cadaveric specimens with C2 unconstrained and C2 constrained to simulate level gaze. Overall and segmental motions were determined using optoelectronic motion measurement and specimen-specific kinematic modeling. Without a kinematic constraint on C2, motions were as described in the literature; namely, flexion and lateral bending to the same side as axial rotation. Keeping C2 level reduced that total axial rotation range of motion of the specimens. Changes were also produced in segmental coupled rotation in all specimens. The observed changes included completely opposite coupled motion than in the uncoupled specimens, and traditional coupled behavior at one load extreme and the opposite at the other extreme. Constraining C2 during axial rotation to simulate level gaze can produce coupled motion that differs from the classically described flexion and lateral bending to the same side as axial rotation. Statement of Clinical Significance: Activities of daily living that require the head to be kept level during axial rotation of the cervical spine may produce segmental motions that are quite different from the classically described motions with implications for biomechanical experiments and implant designers.

Predictive underestimation of difficult direct laryngoscopy in a patient with rheumatoid arthritis-associated immobilized craniocervical junction

BACKGROUND

The upper cervical spine is a major focus of damage by rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Specific screening for mobility of the upper cervical spine, which is essential for direct laryngoscopy, is lacking. Herein, we present a case of RA with Cormack-Lehane grade IV, which was not predicted by preoperative examination.

CASE PRESENTATION

A 66-year-old woman with RA was scheduled for a right total knee arthroplasty and right elbow synovectomy. She had a long history of RA without symptoms related to the cervical spine or spinal cord. Although physical examination suggested moderate risk of difficult intubation with preserved cervical retroflexion, her Cormack-Lehane classification was grade IV under muscle relaxation. Bony integration of the occiput to axis was considered to be the main cause of difficult direct laryngoscopy, and restricted neck rotation was found postoperatively.

CONCLUSIONS

RA patients may have limited upper cervical spine motion despite normal cervical retroflexion.

Dynamics of atlantoaxial rotation related to age and sex: a cross-sectional study of 308 subjects

BACKGROUND CONTEXT

Physiological ranges and dynamic changes of atlantoaxial rotation (ROTC1/2), total cervical spine rotation (ROTCs) and the percentage of ROTC1/2 from ROTCs (ROTCperc) for different age groups have not yet been investigated in a sufficiently sized cohort. Furthermore, it is not clear whether demographic variables such a sex, smoking status or diabetes affect ROTC1/2, ROTCs and ROTCperc.

PURPOSE

Obtain physiological ranges of ROTC1/2, ROTCs and ROTCperc for different age groups and determine their age-based dynamics. Investigate whether ROTC1/2, ROTCs and ROTCperc are affected by sex, smoking status or diabetes.

DESIGN

Observational cross-sectional study.

PATIENT SAMPLE

Patients undergoing elective CT examinations of the head and neck region between August 2020 and January 2022.

OUTCOME MEASURES

Ranges of motion of ROTC1/2, ROTCs and ROTCperc in degrees.

METHODS

A total of 308 subjects underwent dynamic rotational CT examinations of the upper cervical spine. Patients were divided into three age categories A1 (27-49 years), A2 (50-69 years) and A3 (≥70 years). Category A3 was further divided into B1 (70-79 years) and B2 (≥80 years). Values of ROTC1/2, ROTCs and ROTCperc were compared between all age groups, males and females, smokers and nonsmokers, diabetics a nondiabetics. Dynamics of ROTC1/2, ROTCs related to age and sex were visualized using scatterplot and trendline models.

RESULTS

ROTC1/2 significantly decreased from group A1 (64.4°) to B2 (46.7°) as did ROTCs from A1 (131.2°) to B2 (97.6°). No significant differences of ROTperc were found between groups A1-B2 with values oscillating between 49% and 51%. Smoking and diabetes did not significantly affect ROTC1/2, ROTCs and ROTCperc, females had significantly higher ROTCs than males. Males and females demonstrated a different dynamic of ROTC1/2 and ROTCs demonstrated by out scatterplot and trendline models.

CONCLUSIONS

Both ROTC1/2 and ROTCs significantly decrease with age, whereas ROTCperc remains stable. Females demonstrated higher ROTCs and their decrease of ROTC1/2 and ROTCs occurred in higher age groups compared to males. The functional repercussions atlantoaxial fusion are variable based on patient age and sex and should be taken into account prior to surgery.

Impact of delay extubation on the reintubation rate in patients after cervical spine surgery: a retrospective cohort study

BACKGROUND

The incidence of cervical airway obstruction after cervical spine surgery (CSS) ranges from 1.2 to 14%, and some require reintubation. If not addressed promptly, the consequences can be fatal. This study investigated delayed extubation's effect on patients' reintubation rate after cervical spine surgery.

METHODS

We performed a retrospective case-control analysis of cervical spine surgery from our ICU from January 2021 to October 2022. Demographic and preoperative characteristics, intraoperative data, and postoperative clinical outcomes were collected for all 94 patients. Univariable analysis and multivariable logistic regression were used to analyze postoperative unsuccessful extubation risk factors following cervical spine surgery.

RESULTS

The patients in the early extubation (n = 73) and delayed extubation (n = 21) groups had similar demographic characteristics. No significant differences were found in the reintubation rate (0 vs. 6.8%, p = 0.584). However, the delayed extubation group had significantly more patients with 4 and more cervical fusion segments (42.9 vs. 15.1%, p = 0.013),more patients with an operative time greater than 4 h (33.3 vs. 6.8%, p = 0.004)and all patients involved C2-4 (78 vs. 100%, p = 0.019).Also, patients in the delayed extubation group had a longer duration of ICU stay (152.9 ± 197.1 h vs. 27.2 ± 45.4 h, p < 0.001) and longer duration of hospital stay (15.2 ± 6.9 days vs. 11.6 ± 4.1 days, p = 0.003). Univariate and multivariate analysis identified the presences of cervical spondylotic myelopathy (CSM) (OR 0.02, 95% CI 0-0.39, p = 0.009) and respiratory diseases (OR: 23.2, 95% CI 2.35-229.51, p = 0.007) as unfavorable prognostic factor for reintubation.

CONCLUSIONS

Our analysis of patients with cervical spondylosis who received CSS indicated that delayed extubation was associated with the presence of respiratory diseases and CSM, longer operative time, more cervical fusion segments, and longer duration of ICU and hospital stays.

Post-Traumatic Atlanto-Axial Instability: A Combined Clinical and Radiological Approach for the Diagnosis of Pathological Rotational Movement in the Upper Cervical Spine

Post-traumatic rotational instability at the atlanto-axial (C1-2) joint is difficult to assess, much less quantify, due to the orientation and motion plane of the joint. Prior investigations have demonstrated that a dynamic axial CT scan, during which the patient maximally rotates the head right and left, can be used to evaluate and quantify the amount of residual overlap between the inferior articulating facet of C1 and the superior facet of C2, as an index of ligamentous laxity at the joint. We have previously demonstrated that a novel orthopedic test of rotational instability, the atlas-axis rotational test (A-ART), may have utility in identifying patients with imaging evidence of upper cervical ligament injury. In the present investigation, we assessed the correlation between a positive A-ART and a CT scan assessment of the relative quantity of residual C1-2 overlap, as a percent of the superior articulating facet surface area of C2. A retrospective review was conducted of the records of consecutive patients presenting to a physical therapy and rehabilitation clinic, over a 5-year period (2015-20) for chronic head and neck pain after whiplash trauma. The primary inclusion criteria were that the patient had undergone both a clinical evaluation with A-ART and a dynamic axial CT to evaluate for C1-2 residual facet overlap at maximum rotation. The records for a total of 57 patients (44 female/13 male) were identified who fit the selection criteria, and among these, there were 43 with a positive A-ART (i.e., "cases") and 14 with a negative A-ART (i.e., "controls). The analysis demonstrated that a positive A-ART was highly predictive of decreased residual C1-2 facet overlap: the average overlap area among the cases was approximately one-third that of the control group (on the left, 10.7% versus 29.1%, and 13.6% versus 31.0% on the right). These results suggest that a positive A-ART is a reliable indicator of underlying rotational instability at C1-2 in patients with chronic head and neck symptoms following whiplash trauma.

Utilizing machine learning for opportunistic screening for low BMD using CT scans of the cervical spine

BACKGROUND

Computed Tomography (CT) scans of the cervical spine are often performed to evaluate patients for trauma and degenerative changes of the cervical spine. We hypothesized that the CT attenuation of the cervical vertebrae can be used to identify patients who should be screened for osteoporosis.

METHODS

Retrospective study of 253 patients (177 training/validation and 76 test) with unenhanced CT scans of the cervical spine and DXA studies within 12 months of each other. Volumetric segmentation of C1-T1, clivus, and first ribs was performed to obtain the CT attenuation of each bone. The correlations of the CT attenuations between the bones and with DXA measurements were evaluated. Univariate receiver operator characteristic (ROC) analyses, and multivariate classifiers (Random Forest (RF), XGBoost, Naïve Bayes (NB), and Support Vector Machines (SVM)) analyzing the CT attenuation of all bones, were utilized to predict patients with osteopenia/osteoporosis and femoral neck bone mineral density (BMD) T-scores <-1.

RESULTS

There were positive correlations between the CT attenuation of each bone, and with the DXA measurements. A CT attenuation threshold of 305.2 Hounsfield Units (HU) at C3 had the highest accuracy =0.763 (AUC=0.814) to detect femoral neck BMD T-scores ≤-1 and a CT attenuation threshold of 323.6 HU at C3 had the highest accuracy=0.774 (AUC=0.843) to detect osteopenia/osteoporosis. The SVM classifier (AUC=0.756) had higher AUC than the RF (AUC=0.692, P=0.224), XGBoost (AUC=0.736; P=0.814), NB (AUC=0.622, P=0.133) and CT threshold of 305.2 HU at C3 (AUC=0.704, P=0.531) classifiers to identify patients with femoral neck BMD T-scores <-1. The SVM classifier (accuracy=0.816) was more accurate than using the CT threshold of 305.2 HU at C3 (accuracy=0.671) (McNemar's χ₁²=7.55, P=0.006).

CONCLUSION

Opportunistic screening for low BMD can be done using cervical spine CT scans. A SVM classifier was more accurate than using the CT threshold of 305.2 HU at C3.

Craniocervical Junction Visualization and Radiation Dose Consideration Utilizing Cone Beam Computed Tomography for Upper Cervical Chiropractic Clinical Application a Literature Review

Objectives

To highlight the detail obtained on a Cone Beam Computed Tomography (CBCT) scan of the craniocervical junction and its usefulness to Chiropractors who specialize in the upper cervical spine. A review of the dose considerations to patients vs radiography in a chiropractic clinical setting and to review the effective radiation dose to the patient.

Methods

A review of studies discussing cervical biomechanics, neurovascular structures, and abnormal radiographic findings, was discussed in relation to chiropractic clinical relevance. Further studies were evaluated demonstrating radiation dose to the patient from radiographs compared to CBCT.

Results

Incidental and abnormal findings of the craniocervical junction were shown to have superior visualization with CBCT compared to radiography. The radiation dose to the patient for similar imaging protocols to the craniocervical junction and cervical spine was equal or less utilizing CBCT when compared to radiographs.

Conclusions

The use of CBCT for visualization of the craniocervical junction and cervical spine in the chiropractic clinical setting allows for adjunctive visualization of the osseous structures which is germane to clinical protocol. Further with CBCT the effective dose to the patient is equal or less than similar imaging protocols utilizing radiographs to evaluate the craniocervical junction.

Spontaneous Osseous Fusion after Remodeling Therapy for Chronic Atlantoaxial Rotatory Fixation and Recovery Mechanism of Rotatory Range of Motion of the Cervical Spine

We aimed to investigate the risk factors of spontaneous osseous fusion (SOF) of the atlantoaxial joint after closed reduction under general anesthesia followed by halo fixation (remodeling therapy) for chronic atlantoaxial rotatory fixation, and to elucidate the recovery mechanism of the rotatory range of motion (ROM) after halo removal. Twelve patients who underwent remodeling therapy were retrospectively reviewed. Five patients with SOF were categorized as the fusion group and seven patients without SOF as the non-fusion group. Three dimensional CT was used to detect direct osseous contact (DOC) of facet joints before and during halo fixation, while dynamic CT at neutral and maximally rotated head positions was performed to measure rotatory ROM after halo removal. The duration from onset to initial visit was significantly longer (3.2 vs. 5.7 months, p = 0.04), incidence of DOC during halo fixation was higher (0/7 [0%] vs. 4/5 [80%], p = 0.004), and segmental rotatory ROM of Occiput/C1 (Oc/C1) at final follow-up was larger (9.8 vs. 20.1 degrees, p = 0.003) in the fusion group. Long duration from the onset to the initial visit might induce irreversible damage to the articular surface of the affected facet, which was confirmed as DOC during halo fixation and resulted in SOF. Long duration from the onset to the initial visit and DOC during halo fixation could be used to suggest the risk for SOF. Nonetheless, rotatory ROM of Oc/C1 increased to compensate for SOF.

Kinematics of the Cervical Spine Under Healthy and Degenerative Conditions: A Systematic Review

Knowledge of spinal kinematics is essential for the diagnosis and management of spinal diseases. Distinguishing between physiological and pathological motion patterns can help diagnose these diseases, plan surgical interventions and improve relevant tools and software. During the last decades, numerous studies based on diverse methodologies attempted to elucidate spinal mobility in different planes of motion. The authors aimed to summarize and compare the evidence about cervical spine kinematics under healthy and degenerative conditions. This includes an illustrated description of the spectrum of physiological cervical spine kinematics, followed by a comparable presentation of kinematics of the degenerative cervical spine. Data was obtained through a systematic MEDLINE search including studies on angular/translational segmental motion contribution, range of motion, coupling and center of rotation. As far as the degenerative conditions are concerned, kinematic data regarding disc degeneration and spondylolisthesis were available. Although the majority of the studies identified repeating motion patterns for most motion planes, discrepancies associated with limited sample sizes and different imaging techniques and/or spine configurations, were noted. Among healthy/asymptomatic individuals, flexion extension (FE) and lateral bending (LB) are mainly facilitated by the subaxial cervical spine. C4-C5 and C5-C6 were the major FE contributors in the reported studies, exceeding the motion contribution of sub-adjacent segments. Axial rotation (AR) greatly depends on C1-C2. FE range of motion (ROM) is distributed between the atlantoaxial and subaxial segments, while AR ROM stems mainly from the former and LB ROM from the latter. In coupled motion rotation is quantitatively predominant over translation. Motion migrates caudally from C1-C2 and the center of rotation (COR) translocates anteriorly and superiorly for each successive subaxial segment. In degenerative settings, concurrent or subsequent lesions render the association between diseases and mobility alterations challenging. The affected segments seem to maintain translational and angular motion in early and moderate degeneration. However, the progression of degeneration restrains mobility, which seems to be maintained or compensated by adjacent non-affected segments. While the kinematics of the healthy cervical spine have been addressed by multiple studies, the entire nosological and kinematic spectrum of cervical spine degeneration is partially addressed. Large-scale in vivo studies can complement the existing evidence, cover the gaps and pave the way to technological and clinical breakthroughs.

Validation and application of a novel in vivo cervical spine kinematics analysis technique

To validate the accuracy of Cone beam computed tomography (CBCT) cervical spine modeling with three dimensional (3D)-3D registration for in vivo measurements of cervical spine kinematics. CBCT model accuracy was validated by superimposition with computed tomography (CT) models in 10 healthy young adults, and then cervical vertebrae were registered in six end positions of functional movements, versus a neutral position, in 5 healthy young adults. Registration errors and six degrees of freedom (6-DOF) kinematics were calculated and reported. Relative to CT models, mean deviations of the CBCT models were < 0.6 mm. Mean registration errors between end positions and the reference neutral position were < 0.7 mm. During flexion-extension (F-E), the translation in the three directions was small, mostly < 1 mm, with coupled LB and AR both < 1°. During lateral bending (LB), the bending was distributed roughly evenly, with coupled axial rotation (AR) opposite to the LB at C1-C2, and minimal coupled F-E. During AR, most of the rotation occurred in the C1-C2 segment (29.93 ± 7.19° in left twist and 31.38 ± 8.49° in right twist) and coupled LB was observed in the direction opposite to that of the AR. Model matching demonstrated submillimeter accuracy in cervical spine kinematics data. The presently evaluated low-radiation-dose CBCT technique can be used to measure 3D spine kinematics in vivo across functional F-E, AR, and LB positions, which has been especially challenging for the upper cervical spine.

In vitro upper cervical spine kinematics: Rotation with combined movements and its variation after alar ligament transection

Previous studies indicate that maximum upper cervical axial rotation occurs only through a combination of transverse, frontal, and sagittal plane motions. This study explores the relationship between transection of the alar ligament and combined upper cervical axial rotation movements. Ten cryopreserved upper cervical spines were manually mobilized in bilateral axial rotation and two different motion combinations with simultaneous motion in the three anatomical planes: rotation in extension (extension + axial rotation + contralateral lateral bending) and rotation in flexion (flexion + axial rotation + ipsilateral lateral bending). These three motions were performed before and after right alar ligament transection. The occiput-axis axial rotation was measured using an optical motion capture system while measuring the applied load. With intact alar ligament, the axial rotation in flexion showed the lowest range of motion (right, R: 9.81 ± 3.89°; left, L: 15.54 ± 5.89°). Similar results were found between the other two mobilizations: axial rotation (R: 33.87 ± 6.64°; L: 27.99 ± 6.90°) and rotation in extension (R: 35.15 ± 5.97°; L: 28.96 ± 6.47°). After right alar ligament transection, rotation in flexion (particularly in left rotation) showed the largest increase in motion: rotation in flexion (R: 13.78 ± 9.63°; L: 23.04 ± 5.59°), rotation in extension (R: 36.39 ± 7.10°; L: 31.71 ± 7.67°), and axial rotation (R: 38.50 ± 9.47°; L: 31.59 ± 6.55°). Different combinations of movements should be evaluated when analyzing the maximum axial rotation of the upper cervical spine, as axial rotation alone and rotation in extension showed a larger range of motion than rotation in flexion. After unilateral alar ligament injury, rotation to the non-injured side in flexion demonstrates the most movement increase.

Effects of occipital-atlas stabilization in the upper cervical spine kinematics: an in vitro study

This study compares upper cervical spine range of motion (ROM) in the three cardinal planes before and after occiput-atlas (C0–C1) stabilization. After the dissection of the superficial structures to the alar ligament and the fixation of C2, ten cryopreserved upper cervical columns were manually mobilized in the three cardinal planes of movement without and with a screw stabilization of C0–C1. Upper cervical ROM and mobilization force were measured using the Vicon motion capture system and a load cell respectively. The ROM without C0–C1 stabilization was 19.8° ± 5.2° in flexion and 14.3° ± 7.7° in extension. With stabilization, the ROM was 11.5° ± 4.3° and 6.6° ± 3.5°, respectively. The ROM without C0–C1 stabilization was 4.7° ± 2.3° in right lateral flexion and 5.6° ± 3.2° in left lateral flexion. With stabilization, the ROM was 2.3° ± 1.4° and 2.3° ± 1.2°, respectively. The ROM without C0–C1 stabilization was 33.9° ± 6.7° in right rotation and 28.0° ± 6.9° in left rotation. With stabilization, the ROM was 28.5° ± 7.0° and 23.7° ± 8.5° respectively. Stabilization of C0–C1 reduced the upper cervical ROM by 46.9% in the sagittal plane, 55.3% in the frontal plane, and 15.6% in the transverse plane. Also, the resistance to movement during upper cervical mobilization increased following C0–C1 stabilization.

In vivo primary and coupled segmental motions of the healthy female head-neck complex during dynamic head axial rotation

While previous studies have greatly improved our knowledge on the motion capability of the cervical spine, few reported on the kinematics of the entire head-neck complex (C0-T1) during dynamic activities of the head in the upright posture. This study investigated in vivo kinematics of the entire head-neck complex (C0-T1) of eight female asymptomatic subjects during dynamic left-right head axial rotation using a dual fluoroscopic imaging system and 3D-to-2D registration techniques. During one-sided head rotation (i.e., left or right head rotation), the primary rotation of the overall head-neck complex (C0-T1) reached 55.5 ± 10.8°, the upper cervical spine region (C0-2) had a primary axial rotation of 39.7 ± 9.6° (71.3 ± 8.5% of the overall C0-T1 axial rotation), and the lower cervical spine region (C2-T1) had a primary rotation of 10.0 ± 3.7° (18.6 ± 7.2% of the overall C0-T1 axial rotation). Coupled bending rotations occurred in the upper and lower cervical spine regions in similar magnitude but opposite directions (upper: contralateral bending of 18.2 ± 5.9° versus lower: ipsilateral bending of 21.4 ± 5.1°), resulting in a compensatory cervical lateral curvature that balances the head to rotate horizontally. Furthermore, upper cervical segments (C0-1 or C1-2) provided main mobility in different rotational degrees of freedom needed for head axial rotations. Additionally, we quantitatively described both coupled segmental motions (flexion-extension and lateral bending) by correlation with the overall primary axial rotation of the head-neck complex. This investigation offers comprehensive baseline data regarding primary and coupled motions of craniocervical segments during head axial rotation.

Analysis and evaluation of the systems used for the assessment of the cervical spine function: a systematic review

Neck injuries and pathologies are widespread and cause disability. Clinicians use different tools to measure the cervical spine' mobility to diagnose different disorders. There are many reliable assessment methods for this purpose, but their benefits have not been deeply investigated and compared, as well as their measurement results. This review aims to summarise the advantages, accuracy, and reliability, of measurement tools and devices used in studies or trails related to the neck and cervical spine evaluation, to evidence the use of inertial sensors and compare them, to highlight the best assessment systems and their characteristics. A literature review has been performed in a range of five years, to obtain information about cervical spine evaluation. Studies that met the established inclusion criteria were selected and classified according their pathology studied, objectives and methodologies followed when evaluating the cervical spine functionality. Studies were described chronologically highlighting the tools employed, where the motion capture systems and cervical range of motion devices stood out as the most used and reliable methods. Cervical spine assessment studies employing systems with inertial sensors as an accurate method, is not evidenced in the sample. However, they are widely tested and different studies validate these systems for their clinical area use, obtaining high reliability and repeatability. Thereby, this review argues that inertial sensors have proven to be a portable, and easy to use tool for the evaluation of neck and its related pathologies, with a great accuracy level.

Does Upper Cervical Manual Therapy Provide Additional Benefit in Disability and Mobility over a Physiotherapy Primary Care Program for Chronic Cervicalgia? A Randomized Controlled Trial

Introduction: Neck pain is a condition with a high incidence in primary care. Patients with chronic neck pain often experience reduction in neck mobility. However, no study to date has investigated the effects of manual mobilization of the upper cervical spine in patients with chronic mechanical neck pain and restricted upper cervical rotation. Objective: To evaluate the effect of adding an upper cervical translatoric mobilization or an inhibitory suboccipital technique to a conventional physical therapy protocol in patients with chronic neck pain test on disability and cervical range of motion. Design: Randomized controlled trial. Methods: Seventy-eight patients with chronic neck pain and restricted upper cervical rotation were randomized in three groups: Upper cervical translatoric mobilization group, inhibitory suboccipital technique group, or control group. The neck disability index, active cervical mobility, and the flexion-rotation test were assessed at baseline (T0), after the treatment (T1), and at three-month follow-up (T2). Results: There were no statistically significant differences between groups in neck disability index. The upper cervical translatoric mobilization group showed a significant increase in the flexion-rotation test to the more restricted side at T1 (F = 5.992; p < 0.004) and T2 (F = 5.212; p < 0.007) compared to the control group. The inhibitory suboccipital technique group showed a significant increase in the flexion-rotation test to the less restricted side at T1 (F = 3.590; p < 0.027). All groups presented high percentages of negative flexion-rotation tests. (T1: 69.2% upper neck translator mobilization group; 38.5% suboccipital inhibition technique group, 19.2% control group; at T2: 80.8%; 46.2% and 26.9% respectively). No significant differences in the active cervical mobility were found between groups. Conclusion: Adding manual therapy to a conventional physical therapy protocol for the upper cervical spine increased the flexion-rotation test in the short- and mid-term in patients with chronic neck pain. No changes were found in the neck disability index and the global active cervical range of motion.

Intervertebral range of motion characteristics of normal cervical spinal segments (C0-T1) during in vivo neck motions

The in vivo intervertebral range of motion (ROM) is an important predictor for spinal disorders. While the subaxial cervical spine has been extensively studied, the motion characteristics of the occipito-atlantal (C0-1) and atlanto-axial (C1-2) cervical segments were less reported due to technical difficulties in accurate imaging of these two segments. In this study, we investigated the intervertebral ROMs of the entire cervical spine (C0-T1) during in vivo functional neck motions of asymptomatic human subjects, including maximal flexion-extension, left-right lateral bending, and left-right axial torsion, using previously validated dual fluoroscopic imaging and model registration techniques. During all neck motions, C0-1, similar to C7-T1, was substantially less mobile than other segments and always contributed less than 10% of the cervical rotations. During the axial rotation of the neck, C1-2 contributed 73.2 ± 17.3% of the cervical rotation, but each of other segments contributed less than 10% of the cervical rotation. During both lateral bending and axial torsion neck motions, regardless of primary or coupled motions, the axial torsion ROM of C1-2 was significantly greater than its lateral bending ROM (p < 0.001), whereas the opposite differences were consistently observed at subaxial segments. This study reveals that there are distinct motion patterns at upper and lower cervical segments during in vivo neck motions. The reported data could be useful for the development of new diagnosis methods of cervical pathologies and new surgical techniques that aim to restore normal cervical segmental motion.