Force field generalization and the internal representation of motor learning

Tiny visual latencies can profoundly impair implicit sensorimotor learning

Short sub-100 ms visual feedback latencies are common in many types of human-computer interactions yet are known to markedly reduce performance in a wide variety of motor tasks from simple pointing to operating surgical robotics. It remains unclear, however, whether these latencies impair not only skilled motor performance but also the implicit sensorimotor learning that underlies its acquisition. Inspired by neurophysiological findings showing that cerebellar LTD and cortical LTP would both be disrupted by sub-100 ms latencies, we hypothesized that implicit sensorimotor learning may be particularly sensitive to these short latencies. Remarkably, we find that improving latency by just 60 ms, from 85 to 25 ms in continuous-feedback experiments, increases implicit learning by 50% and proportionally decreases explicit learning. This resulted in a dramatic reorganization of sensorimotor memory from a 45/55 to a 70/30 implicit/explicit ratio. This 70/30 ratio is more than double that observed in any previous study examining the effect of latency on sensorimotor learning, including a recent study which provided time-advanced visual feedback, suggesting that the low-latency continuous visual feedback we provided is critical for efficiently driving implicit learning. We go on to show that implicit sensorimotor learning is considerably more sensitive to latencies in the sub-100 ms range than to higher latencies, in line with the latency-specific neural plasticity that has been observed. This suggests a clear benefit for latency reduction in computer-based training that involves implicit sensorimotor learning and that across-study differences in computer-based experiments that have examined implicit sensorimotor learning might be explained by differences in unmeasured feedback latencies.

A comparison of force adaptation in toddlers and adults during a drawer opening task

Adapting movements to rapidly changing conditions is fundamental for interacting with our dynamic environment. This adaptability relies on internal models that predict and evaluate sensory outcomes to adjust motor commands. Even infants anticipate object properties for efficient grasping, suggesting the use of internal models. However, how internal models are adapted in early childhood remains largely unexplored. This study investigated a naturalistic force adaptation task in 1.5-, 3-year-olds, and young adults. Participants opened a drawer with temporarily increased resistance, creating sensory prediction errors between predicted and actual drawer dynamics. After perturbation, all age groups showed lower peak speed, longer movement time, and more movement units with trial-wise changes analyzed as adaptation process. Results revealed no age differences in adapting peak speed and movement units, but 1.5- and 3-year-olds exhibited higher trial-to-trial variability and were slower in adapting their movement time, although they also adapted their movement time more strongly. Upon removal of perturbation, we found significant aftereffects across all age groups, indicating effective internal model adaptation. These results suggest that even 1.5-year-olds form internal models of force parameters and adapt them to reduce sensory prediction errors, possibly through more exploration and with more variable movement dynamics compared to adults.

The cerebellum acts as the analog to the medial temporal lobe for sensorimotor memory

The cerebellum is critical for sensorimotor learning. The specific contribution that it makes, however, remains unclear. Inspired by the classic finding that for declarative memories, medial temporal lobe (MTL) structures provide a gateway to the formation of long-term memory but are not required for short-term memory, we hypothesized that for sensorimotor memories, the cerebellum may play an analogous role. Here, we studied the sensorimotor learning of individuals with severe ataxia from cerebellar degeneration. We dissected the memories they formed during sensorimotor learning into a short-term temporally-volatile component, that decays rapidly with a time constant of just 15 to 20 s and thus cannot lead to long-term retention, and a longer-term temporally-persistent component that is stable for 60 s or more and leads to long-term retention. Remarkably, we find that these individuals display dramatically reduced levels of temporally-persistent sensorimotor memory, despite spared and even elevated levels of temporally-volatile sensorimotor memory. In particular, we find both impairment that systematically worsens with memory window duration over shorter memory windows (<12 s) and near-complete impairment of memory maintenance over longer memory windows (>25 s). This dissociation uncovers a unique role for the cerebellum as a gateway for the formation of long-term but not short-term sensorimotor memories, mirroring the role of the MTL for declarative memories. It thus reveals the existence of distinct neural substrates for short-term and long-term sensorimotor memory, and it explains both the trial-to-trial differences identified in this study and long-standing study-to-study differences in the effects of cerebellar damage on sensorimotor learning ability.

The cerebellum acts as the analog to the medial temporal lobe for sensorimotor memory

The cerebellum is critical for sensorimotor learning. The specific contribution that it makes, however, remains unclear. Inspired by the classic finding that, for declarative memories, medial temporal lobe structures provide a gateway to the formation of long-term memory but are not required for short-term memory, we hypothesized that, for sensorimotor memories, the cerebellum may play an analogous role. Here we studied the sensorimotor learning of individuals with severe ataxia from cerebellar degeneration. We dissected the memories they formed during sensorimotor learning into a short-term temporally-volatile component, that decays rapidly with a time constant of just 15-20sec and thus cannot lead to long-term retention, and a longer-term temporally-persistent component that is stable for 60 sec or more and leads to long-term retention. Remarkably, we find that these individuals display dramatically reduced levels of temporally-persistent sensorimotor memory, despite spared and even elevated levels of temporally-volatile sensorimotor memory. In particular, we find both impairment that systematically increases with memory window duration over shorter memory windows (<12 sec) and near-complete impairment of memory maintenance over longer memory windows (>25 sec). This dissociation uncovers a new role for the cerebellum as a gateway for the formation of long-term but not short-term sensorimotor memories, mirroring the role of the medial temporal lobe for declarative memories. It thus reveals the existence of distinct neural substrates for short-term and long-term sensorimotor memory, and it explains both newly-identified trial-to-trial differences and long-standing study-to-study differences in the effects of cerebellar damage on sensorimotor learning ability.

Significance Statement

A key discovery about the neural underpinnings of memory, made more than half a century ago, is that long-term, but not short-term, memory formation depends on neural structures in the brain's medial temporal lobe (MTL). However, this dichotomy holds only for declarative memories - memories for explicit facts such as names and dates - as long-term procedural memories - memories for implicit knowledge such as sensorimotor skills - are largely unaffected even with substantial MTL damage. Here we demonstrate that the formation of long-term, but not short-term, sensorimotor memory depends on a neural structure known as the cerebellum, and we show that this finding explains the variability previously reported in the extent to which cerebellar damage affects sensorimotor learning.

Subtle Visual Latency Can Profoundly Impair Implicit Sensorimotor Learning

Short sub-100ms visual feedback latencies are common in many types of human-computer interactions yet are known to markedly reduce performance in a wide variety of motor tasks from simple pointing to operating surgical robotics. These latencies are also present in the computer-based experiments used to study the sensorimotor learning that underlies the acquisition of motor performance. Inspired by neurophysiological findings showing that cerebellar LTD and cortical LTP would both be disrupted by sub-100ms latencies, we hypothesized that implicit sensorimotor learning may be particularly sensitive to these short latencies. Remarkably, we find that improving latency by just 60ms, from 85 to 25ms in latency-optimized experiments, increases implicit learning by 50% and proportionally decreases explicit learning, resulting in a dramatic reorganization of sensorimotor memory. We go on to show that implicit sensorimotor learning is considerably more sensitive to latencies in the sub-100ms range than at higher latencies, in line with the latency-specific neural plasticity that has been observed. This suggests a clear benefit for latency reduction in computer-based training that involves implicit sensorimotor learning and that across-study differences in implicit motor learning might often be explained by disparities in feedback latency.

Motion state-dependent motor learning based on explicit visual feedback has limited spatiotemporal properties compared with adaptation to physical perturbations

We recently showed that subjects can learn motion state-dependent changes to motor output (temporal force patterns) based on explicit visual feedback of the equivalent force field (i.e., without the physical perturbation). Here, we examined the spatiotemporal properties of this learning compared with learning based on physical perturbations. There were two human subject groups and two experimental paradigms. One group (n = 40) experienced physical perturbations (i.e., a velocity-dependent force field, vFF), whereas the second (n = 40) was given explicit visual feedback (EVF) of the force-velocity relationship. In the latter, subjects moved in force channels and we provided visual feedback of the lateral force exerted during the movement, as well as the required force pattern based on movement velocity. In the first paradigm (spatial generalization), following vFF or EVF training, generalization of learning was tested by requiring subjects to move to 14 untrained target locations (0° to ±135° around the trained location). In the second paradigm (temporal stability), following training, we examined the decay of learning over eight delay periods (0 to 90 s). Results showed that learning based on EVF did not generalize to untrained directions, whereas the generalization for the vFF was significant for targets ≤ 45° away. In addition, the decay of learning for the EVF group was significantly faster than the FF group (a time constant of 2.72 ± 1.74 s vs. 12.53 ± 11.83 s). Collectively, our results suggest that recalibrating motor output based on explicit motion state information, in contrast to physical disturbances, uses learning mechanisms with limited spatiotemporal properties.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Adjustment of motor output based on limb motion state information can be achieved based on explicit information or from physical perturbations. Here, we investigated the spatiotemporal characteristics of short-term motor learning to determine the properties of the respective learning mechanisms. Our results suggest that adjustments based on physical perturbations are more temporally stable and applied over a greater spatial range than the learning based on explicit visual feedback, suggesting largely separate learning mechanisms.

Robot-assisted therapy for upper limb paresis after stroke: Use of robotic algorithms in advanced practice

BACKGROUND

Rehabilitation of stroke-related upper limb paresis is a major public health issue.

OBJECTIVE

Robotic systems have been developed to facilitate neurorehabilitation by providing key elements required to stimulate brain plasticity and motor recovery, namely repetitive, intensive, adaptative training with feedback. Although the positive effect of robot-assisted therapy on motor impairments has been well demonstrated, the effect on functional capacity is less certain.

METHOD

This narrative review outlines the principles of robot-assisted therapy for the rehabilitation of post-stroke upper limb paresis.

RESULTS

A paradigm is proposed to promote not only recovery of impairment but also function.

CONCLUSION

Further studies that would integrate some principles of the paradigm described in this paper are needed.

Understanding implicit sensorimotor adaptation as a process of proprioceptive re-alignment

Multiple learning processes contribute to successful goal-directed actions in the face of changing physiological states, biomechanical constraints, and environmental contexts. Amongst these processes, implicit sensorimotor adaptation is of primary importance, ensuring that movements remain well-calibrated and accurate. A large body of work on reaching movements has emphasized how adaptation centers on an iterative process designed to minimize visual errors. The role of proprioception has been largely neglected, thought to play a passive role in which proprioception is affected by the visual error but does not directly contribute to adaptation. Here, we present an alternative to this visuo-centric framework, outlining a model in which implicit adaptation acts to minimize a proprioceptive error, the distance between the perceived hand position and its intended goal. This proprioceptive re-alignment model (PReMo) is consistent with many phenomena that have previously been interpreted in terms of learning from visual errors, and offers a parsimonious account of numerous unexplained phenomena. Cognizant that the evidence for PReMo rests on correlational studies, we highlight core predictions to be tested in future experiments, as well as note potential challenges for a proprioceptive-based perspective on implicit adaptation.

Random Practice Enhances Retention and Spatial Transfer in Force Field Adaptation

The contextual-interference effect is a frequently examined phenomenon in motor skill learning but has not been extensively investigated in motor adaptation. Here, we first tested experimentally if the contextual-interference effect is detectable in force field adaptation regarding retention and spatial transfer, and then fitted state-space models to the data to relate the findings to the “forgetting-and-reconstruction hypothesis”. Thirty-two participants were divided into two groups with either a random or a blocked practice schedule. They practiced reaching to four targets and were tested 10 min and 24 h afterward for motor retention and spatial transfer on an interpolation and an extrapolation target, and on targets which were shifted 10 cm away. The adaptation progress was participant-specifically fitted with 4-slow-1-fast state-space models accounting for generalization and set breaks. The blocked group adapted faster (p = 0.007) but did not reach a better adaptation at practice end. We found better retention (10 min), interpolation transfer (10 min), and transfer to shifted targets (10 min and 24 h) for the random group (each p < 0.05). However, no differences were found for retention or for the interpolation target after 24 h. Neither group showed transfer to the extrapolation target. The extended state-space model could replicate the behavioral results with some exceptions. The study shows that the contextual-interference effect is partially detectable in practice, short-term retention, and spatial transfer in force field adaptation; and that state-space models provide explanatory descriptions for the contextual-interference effect in force field adaptation.

Anterograde interference emerges along a gradient as a function of task similarity: A behavioural study

Anterograde interference emerges when two opposite (B → A) or identical tasks (A → A) are learned in close temporal succession, suggesting that interference cannot be fully accounted for by competing memories. Informed by neurobiological evidence, this work tested the hypothesis that interference depends upon the degree of overlap between the neural networks involved in the learning of two tasks. In a fully within‐subject and counterbalanced design, participants (n = 24) took part in two learning sessions where the putative overlap between learning‐specific neural networks was behaviourally manipulated across four conditions by modifying reach direction and the effector used during gradual visuomotor adaptation. The results showed that anterograde interference emerged regardless of memory competition—that is, to a similar extent in the B → A and A → A conditions—and along a gradient as a function of the tasks' similarity. Specifically, learning under similar reaching conditions generated more anterograde interference than learning under dissimilar reaching conditions, suggesting that putatively overlapping neural networks are required to generate interference. Overall, these results indicate that competing memories are not the sole contributor to anterograde interference and suggest that overlapping neural networks between two learning sessions are required to trigger interference. One discussed possibility is that initial learning modifies the properties of its neural networks to constrain further plasticity induction and learning capabilities, therefore causing anterograde interference in a network‐dependent manner. One implication is that learning‐specific neural networks must be maximally dissociated to minimize the interfering influences of previous learning on subsequent learning.

Direction-Specific Iterative Tuning of Motor Commands With Local Generalization During Randomized Reaching Practice Across Movement Directions

During motor learning, people often practice reaching in variety of movement directions in a randomized sequence. Such training has been shown to enhance retention and transfer capability of the acquired skill compared to the blocked repetition of the same movement direction. The learning system must accommodate such randomized order either by having a memory for each movement direction, or by being able to generalize what was learned in one movement direction to the controls of nearby directions. While our preliminary study used a comprehensive dataset from visuomotor learning experiments and evaluated the first-order model candidates that considered the memory of error and generalization across movement directions, here we expanded our list of candidate models that considered the higher-order effects and error-dependent learning rates. We also employed cross-validation to select the leading models. We found that the first-order model with a constant learning rate was the best at predicting learning curves. This model revealed an interaction between the learning and forgetting processes using the direction-specific memory of error. As expected, learning effects were observed at the practiced movement direction on a given trial. Forgetting effects (error increasing) were observed at the unpracticed movement directions with learning effects from generalization from the practiced movement direction. Our study provides insights that guide optimal training using the machine-learning algorithms in areas such as sports coaching, neurorehabilitation, and human-machine interactions.