Smallholder farmers' knowledge and willingness to pay for insect-based feeds in Kenya

Production, consumption, and market supply of edible crickets: insights from East Africa

Globally, crickets are gaining recognition as a valuable alternative protein source for human consumption due to their lower resource requirement and ecological footprint compared to traditional livestock. In this paper, we examine strategies that may expedite the sustainable domestication of crickets as a food source. Using survey data from 306 households in western Kenya, we find that supplying cricket production starter kits, granting access to credit facilities, encouraging participation in farmer groups, and fostering partnerships can enhance the adoption of cricket farming. Moreover, we provide new evidence that institutional training significantly increases cricket yields while embracing cricket consumption (i.e. entomophagy) increases market supply. These findings underscore the importance of technical training, provision of production starter kits, and raising awareness about entomophagy to achieve sustainable mass production and adoption of cricket farming.

Immune-enhancing Effects of Chitosan-fermented Feed Additive on Broiler Chickens and Subsequent Protection Conferred against Experimental Infection with Salmonella Gallinarum

Benefits chitosan-fermented feed additives (CFFAs) particularly in the regulation of the immune system and antimicrobial activity. Therefore, we investigated the immune-enhancing and bacterial clearance effects of CFFA (fermented by Bacillus licheniformis) on broiler chickens Salmonella Gallinarum challenge. We administered 2% or 4% CFFA evaluated its immune-enhancing effects using several immunological experiments, including examination of lysozyme activity, lymphocyte proliferation, and expression of cytokines. We also evaluated the bacterial clearance effects of CFFA against S. Gallinarum. CFFA administration markedly enhanced lysozyme activity, lymphocyte proliferation, and the expression of interleukin (IL)-2, IL-12, tumor necrosis factor alpha, and interferon gamma in the spleen. In broilers challenged with S. Gallinarum, the clinical signs of S. Gallinarum infection and the number of viable bacterial colonies in the feces and tissues decreased in both CFFA groups. Therefore, CFFAs could be good candidates for feed additive to improve nonspecific immune responses and bacterial clearance.

Could microalgae offer promising options for climate action via their agri-food applications?

In 2021 the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) issued the first volume of its latest authoritative report on climate change. Underlining the seriousness of the situation, the United Nations Secretary-General branded its findings a “code red for humanity.” The need for climate action is now evident, but finding viable pathways forward can be elusive. Microalgae have been attracting attention as a category of “future food,” with species like Arthrospira platensis (spirulina) and Chlorella vulgaris (chlorella) seeing growing uptake by consumers while research interest continues to expand. One timely but neglected question is whether microalgae might offer options for promising climate actions via their agri-food applications. Specifically, might they offer scope to help secure food supplies, while also providing climate resilient livelihood pathways for vulnerable farmers already grappling with food insecurity and environmental degradation? This paper reports on a review of the academic literature on microalgae as an agri-food technology, notably their uses as a food, feed, biofertilizer, biostimulant, and biochar. This family of applications was found to offer promising climate actions vis-à-vis both mitigating and adapting to climate change. Aspects pertinent to adaptation include growing rapidly under controlled conditions, reusing water, providing potent nutrition for humans and animals, and supporting resilient crop production. Agri-food applications of microalgae also provide opportunities to mitigate climate change that could be explored. The paper concludes by flagging possible risks and obstacles as well as research and policy priorities to elaborate and harness this potential.

A review of gender in agricultural and pastoral livelihoods based on selected countries in west and east Africa

This scoping paper presents the results of a review of the landscape of research on gender and agricultural and pastoral livelihoods in select countries in west and east Africa (Burkina Faso, Chad, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Sudan, South Sudan, Somalia, and Uganda) published over 5 years (January 2016–March 2021). A keyword search of the Scopus database gave rise to an ultimate dataset of 169 papers which were coded for geographical location, approaches to gender, and theme based on inductive identification of clusters of research. There has been an increase in the number of published papers but there is an uneven geographical distribution of research. Studies vary in the way they treat gender: with an almost even split between modeling-based studies, where gender is one of many variables to be correlated with, or to determine, an outcome (e.g., poverty—for example, as a dummy variable in regressions); and studies where the expressed aim is to look at gender differences, whether through the gender of an individual or the gender of a household head. Clusters of papers look at gender differences in assets, health, perceptions of environmental degradation, agricultural perceptions and outcomes, and climate change perceptions, vulnerability, and adaptation. There is also a number of papers exploring women's empowerment, including intra-household decision making. Intersectional approaches have been employed both through modeling studies and through more in-depth qualitative studies that are able to trace changes in identity over time, and the implications therein. The household and household headship have remained common entry points and units of analysis, despite known critiques. The results highlight a need to address geographical gaps in gender research, expand the evidence base of intersectional approaches, explore other aspects of social inequality, and expand more innovative methodological studies.

Consumers' perception towards eggs from laying hens fed commercial black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) larvae meal-based feeds

Increased demand for animal protein has motivated the search for more efficient livestock production systems. In recent years, there has been growing interest to incorporate insect meal as an alternative source of protein to fish/soybean meal in chicken feed for improved nutrition, sustainability, and animal welfare benefits. Black soldier fly larval (BSFL)-based feeds has been shown to increase egg production in a cost-effective manner. However, poultry consumers perception towards the consumption of eggs from layers fed diet integrated with BSFL-based meal have received limited research attention. This study evaluates consumers' perception towards eggs from hens fed BSFL-based diets and socioeconomic factors influencing the conceived perceptions. The study adopted an exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and binary logit regression models to establish perceptions of 200 consumers in Kiambu County, Kenya. Our results revealed that 65% of the consumers were aware of the benefits of integrating insect protein in poultry feed. Over 70% of respondents showed preference and willingness to consume egg products from hens fed diets with BSFL-based feeds. The EFA identified perceived benefits, ethics and traceability as the key aspects that influence consumer intention to consume eggs. Binary logit model revealed that consumer characteristics such as household size, gender, awareness of insects as feed, off-farm income, household income, nature of buying place, and access to credit were important factors driving consumers perceptions. Our findings provide insight into the market perception and potential of eggs from laying hens fed BSFL-based feeds. Our findings demonstrated that increased awareness creation and evidence-based demonstration on the benefits of BSFL-based feed in poultry production would improve consumer perception and foster uptake of this rapidly growing and emerging technology. This work contributes to the limited knowledge on BSFL-based feeds and paves way for further linkages between farmers, public private partners, policy makers, and consumers.

Assessment of peri-urban livestock producers' willingness to pay for improved forages as cash crops

Availability of quality feed is a major constraint for livestock production in Burkina Faso. Despite previous efforts to test improved forages at research stations to overcome the dry-season feed gap, little has been done to promote them as cash crops that can contribute to meeting the growing feed demand in the country. This study was undertaken to evaluate the willingness to pay (WTP) for improved forage by livestock producers in the peri-urban livestock production systems of Burkina Faso. A total of 202 livestock producers were interviewed using semi-structured questionnaires. The contingent valuation method and Tobit econometric model were used to analyze the survey data. Exactly 79% of the interviewed livestock producers were willing to pay for improved forages for their livestock. Key factors that significantly affect this decision were the price of cottonseed cakes used as supplemental feed (P = .001), farmers' knowledge about improved forage crops (P = .001), farmers' ethnicity (P = .05), and farmers' practice of daily grazing and transhumance (P = .01). The estimated WTP for improved forage as a cash crop was US$0.32 kg^-1 for all livestock producers and $0.58 kg^-1 for those who only expressed a positive WTP. The positive WTP for improved forages and factors affecting that decision suggest that producing improved forages is a viable alternative to expensive cottonseed cakes and the practice of transhumance to overcome the dry-season feed gap. Therefore, dissemination of improved forages is recommended to market-oriented crop farmers to meet the growing feed demand in Burkina Faso.

Edible insect farming as an emerging and profitable enterprise in East Africa

In East Africa, insect farming is a rapidly growing business providing access to 'climate-smart' protein, other nutrients, and income. With the continental drive to transform existing food systems that are becoming continuously unsustainable due to scarcity of arable land and water, and high ecological imprint, insect farming for food and feed with circular economy potential has gained remarkable interest. In this review, we report on the recent research trends on key substrates and insect species commonly farmed, map of commercial enterprises, insect nutritional values, processing techniques, marketing, regulatory framework, and lessons learnt on insect farming. These findings provide important answers to both technical and economic factors of insect farming and provide a clear roadmap for scaling these technologies in a phased approach through effective public-private partnerships offering interesting opportunities for implementing a circular food economy.

Effect of Insect Live Larvae as Environmental Enrichment on Poultry Gut Health: Gut Mucin Composition, Microbiota and Local Immune Response Evaluation

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of Hermetia illucens (HI) and Tenebrio molitor (TM) live larvae as environmental enrichment on the mucin composition, local immune response and microbiota of broilers. A total of 180 four-day-old male broiler chickens (Ross 308) were randomly allotted to three dietary treatments (six replicates/treatment; ten animals/replicate): (i) control (C); (ii) C+HI; (iii) C+TM. Live larvae were distributed based on 5% of the expected daily feed intake. At slaughter (39 days of age), samples of duodenum, jejunum and ileum (twelve animals/diet) were submitted to mucin histochemical evaluation. Expression of MUC-2 and cytokines was evaluated by rt-qPCR in jejunum. Mucin staining intensity was not influenced by diet (p > 0.05); however, this varied depending on the intestinal segment (p < 0.001). No significant differences were recorded for IL-4, IL-6 TNF-α, MUC-2 and INF-γ gene expression in jejunum, while IL-2 was lower in the TM group compared to HI and C (p = 0.044). Caecal microbiota showed higher abundance of Clostridium, Saccharibacteria and Victivallaceae in the HI group, while Collinsella was higher in the TM group. The results suggested that live insect larvae did not impair mucin composition or local immune response, and can slightly improve caecal microbiota by enhancing a minor fraction of short chain fatty acid-producing taxa.

Farmer perceptions and willingness to pay for novel livestock pest control technologies: A case of tsetse repellent collar in Kwale County in Kenya

Tsetse-transmitted Animal African Trypanosomosis (AAT) is one of the most important constraints to livestock development in Africa. Use of trypanocides has been the most widespread approach for the management of AAT, despite the associated drug resistance and health concerns associated with drug metabolites in animal products. Alternative control measures that target tsetse fly vectors of AAT, though effective, have been hard to sustain in part because these are public goods applied area-wide. The International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology (icipe) and partners have developed and implemented a novel tsetse repellent collar (TRC) applied on animals to limit contact of tsetse flies and livestock, thereby reducing AAT transmission. The TRC has now advanced to commercialization. A household-level survey involving 632 cattle keeping households, was conducted in Shimba Hills region of Kwale County, where field trials of the TRC have been previously conducted to assess farmers’ knowledge, perception, and practices towards the management of tsetse flies, their willingness to pay (WTP) for the TRC, and factors affecting the WTP. Almost all the respondents (90%) reported that tsetse flies were the leading cattle infesting pests in the area. About 22% of these correctly identified at least four AAT clinical signs, and even though many (68%) used trypanocidal drugs to manage the disease, 50% did not perceive the drug as being effective in AAT management (50%). Few respondents (8%) were aware of the harmful effects of trypanocidal drugs. About 89% of the respondents were aware of icipe TRC, and 30% of them were using the field trial collars during the survey. Sixty-three (63%) of them were willing to pay for the TRC at the same cost they spend treating an animal for AAT. On average farmers were willing to pay KES 3,352 per animal per year. Male educated household heads are likely to pay more for the TRC. Moreover, perceived high AAT prevalence and severity further increases the WTP. Wider dissemination and commercialization of the herd-level tsetse control approach (TRC) should be encouraged to impede AAT transmission and thus enhance food security and farm incomes among the affected rural communities. Besides the uptake of TRC can be enhanced through training, especially among women farmers.

Animal African Trypanosomosis is a tropical disease that is of economic importance in Sub-Saharan Africa. The livestock sub-sector supports approximately 600 million smallholders in developing countries through employment, income from livestock products, and improving crop productivity through draft power and manure. Efforts to reduce rural poverty and improve food security and nutrition, therefore, require utilizing livestock to their full potential. Trypanosomosis results in anemia, emaciation, productivity loss, and mortality, and remains a leading constraint to livestock development in Africa. To reduce the risks associated with the use of trypanocides, alternative control measures that target the vector- tsetse fly need to be developed and widely disseminated. The International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology (icipe) and partners have—developed and implemented a novel tsetse repellent collar that shields animals from getting into contact with the vector, thereby preventing trypanosomosis transmission. The collar has now advanced to a commercialization stage. We conducted community and household-level surveys to assess farmer’s knowledge, perception, and practices regarding tsetse pest and trypanosomosis, and their willingness to pay for the novel tsetse repellent collar. We found that the pest is the main cattle production constraint and the cause of the associated disease, although there exists a gap in the identification of the clinical signs of the disease. Besides, most farmers rely on trypanocidal drugs for the treatment of their animals despite their human health and environmental risks. However, the majority were willing to buy the newly developed canvas collar. A male head of a household with a higher level of education is likely to pay more for the novel tsetse repellent collar. Besides, perception of high prevalence and severity of AAT is likely to increase the willingness to pay for the herd-level technology. The findings emphasize the need for wider dissemination and commercialization of the tsetse repellent collar technology to reduce trypanosomosis transmission and hence enhance food security and farm incomes in the affected regions in Africa.

Insect-Based Feed Ingredients for Aquaculture: A Case Study for Their Acceptance in Greece

Simple Summary

Since 2017, insects can be used as ingredients in aquafeeds in the EU. However, insect-based aquafeeds are still not broadly accepted by European aquaculture companies. Understanding the beliefs of people associated with the aquaculture sector on the use of insect-based fish diets could assist their adoption. In the present study, we ran a survey among the participants of an aquaculture conference held in Greece, in order to ask them what they think regarding the inclusion of insect meal in aquafeeds. Furthermore, we inquired nine Greek aquaculture and aquafeed companies about this issue. Greece is among the largest farmed fish producers in the EU; however, there are currently no data available on the acceptance of insect-based aquafeeds in Greece. Based on our results, the majority of the respondents were aware and in favor of the inclusion of insects in aquafeeds, mainly due to their potential to lower fishing pressure on wild fish stocks used for fishmeal production and enhance the ecological footprint and sustainability of aquaculture. Moreover, six out of nine companies were favorably disposed towards the use of insects in fish diets and four of them were willing to produce or use such diets. Further studies are warranted towards this direction.

Abstract

Although the inclusion of insects in fish diets is officially allowed in the EU since 2017, insect-based aquafeeds have not been widely adopted by the European aquaculture sector. In order to investigate the perceptions related with adoption trends, it is critical to explore the beliefs of people associated with the aquaculture sector on the use of insects in farmed fish diets. A survey was conducted among 228 participants of an aquaculture conference to explore their perceptions on the inclusion of insect meal in fish diets. Additionally, we investigated the attitudes of nine companies operating in the aquaculture and aquafeed sector in Greece that attended the conference towards this direction. The findings of the conference survey provide evidence that there is a wide-range awareness and acceptance regarding the use of insect-based feeds in farmed fish diets among the respondents. This is mainly driven by the expectations for the decline in fishing pressure on wild fish stocks, the reduction of the ecological footprint and the enhancement of the sustainability of the aquaculture sector. The results of the stakeholder survey show that six out of the nine companies that participated in the survey are favorably disposed towards the use of insect-based feeds. Specifically, four of them stated that they would produce or use aquafeeds based on insects. However, the results highlight the need for further research on the implementation of the wider adoption of insect-based feeds in aquaculture. The present study provides some first insights into the use of insect-based aquafeeds in Greece, for which there are no data available.

Insects for peace

Insects such as the black soldier fly (BSF) are a nutritious feed component for livestock with high protein levels. BSF can be reared on a wide range of organic residual streams. This allows for local production within a circular agriculture, decoupling livestock production from import of expensive feed components, such as fishmeal or soymeal. Rearing of BSF can be done by smallholder farmers, thus contributing to their livelihood, economic sustainability and social status. Smallholder farmers contribute importantly to food security, which is a prerequisite for a stable society. In armed conflicts, smallholder farmers are usually the first to suffer. In countries recovering from conflict, agricultural development should focus on restoring food production by smallholder farmers, improving their socio-economic position, thereby contributing to sustainable development goals 2 (zero hunger) and 16 (peace and justice). Here, we focus on these SDGs with an example of reintegration of ex-combatants as smallholder insect producers in post-conflict Colombia.