An empirically derived recommendation for the classification of body dysmorphic disorder: Findings from structural equation modeling

Body image disorders: A new theoretical model supporting the reclassification

The present study aims to test a new theoretical model for grouping Anorexia nervosa (AN), bulimia nervosa (BN), body dysmorphic disorder (BDD), and muscle dysmorphia (MD) as Body Image Disorders. In a sample composed of 579 individuals from the community, we used exploratory bifactor modeling to investigate the presence of a higher-order general component in these disorders and identify shared and unique components within each condition. Additionally, we explored the relationships between the assessment instruments' total scores and external variables to assess the distinctiveness of the factors in our model. Our findings indicate the existence of a common general factor encompassing body image disturbance across these disorders. Furthermore, the factor decomposition reveals distinct factors for BDD, MD, and AN/BN, supporting the notion that these are separate conditions despite their shared central element. Other commonalities and differentiation points between the disorders are also identified through decomposition analysis. The external correlations examined provide further support for the bifactor modeling findings. Our evidence supports the recommendation for reclassification of AN, BN, BDD, and MD as Body Image Disorders, which may enable a more precise theoretical understanding that emphases this central component of these conditions.

Efficacy of cognitive-behavioral therapy in reducing muscle dysmorphia symptoms among Turkish gym goers: A pilot study

Muscle dysmorphia (MD) is a disorder marked by an obsessive focus on muscularity, often leading to excessive exercise, rigid dieting, and use of performance-enhancing drugs (PEDs). While Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT) is known to be effective for various body image disorders, its specific effects on individuals with MD have been less studied. This qualitative case series involved seven male participants, aged 35-55, all diagnosed with MD and with a history of anabolic steroid use, undergoing a 12-week manualized CBT intervention. The study aimed to explore how CBT impacts their body image perceptions, exercise behaviors, steroid use, and emotional responses. Data were collected through participant feedback during therapy sessions, with thematic analysis revealing significant shifts in body image perception and reductions in compulsive behaviors and steroid use. Despite these improvements, participants experienced feelings of loss and anxiety as they modified their routines, and some reported relapses under stress, indicating the chronic nature of MD. The findings suggest that CBT effectively reshapes cognitive and behavioral patterns in MD sufferers but also highlight the need for ongoing support to manage the disorder's emotional complexities and prevent relapses. Future research should focus on long-term and individualized therapeutic approaches to better support those with muscle dysmorphia.

Enhancing self-esteem in adults with body dysmorphic symptoms: experimental testing and initial evaluation of a brief internet-based training

BACKGROUND

Low self-esteem is an important factor associated with body dysmorphic concerns. In treatment, self-esteem cannot always be adequately addressed. Internet-based interventions offer a low-threshold and cost-efficient possibility for treating body dysmorphic disorder (BDD).

AIMS

For this reason, we conducted two studies to explore the effectiveness of an internet-based intervention targeting improving self-esteem in adults with BDD symptoms.

METHOD

The first study investigated the differential effects of a 1-week self-esteem training compared with a 1-week attention-focus training. Two hundred twenty adults with elevated body dysmorphic symptoms were randomly assigned to one of the two trainings. Our second study (n = 58 adults with body dysmorphic symptoms) evaluated an extended 2-week stand-alone self-esteem training.

RESULTS

In the first study, self-esteem in different domains (appearance, performance and social), self-focused attention, and BDD symptom severity improved in both groups. Other-focused attention only increased in the attention training group. Participants' overall adherence was high. In the second study we observed significant improvements in self-esteem, BDD symptom severity, and other secondary outcomes, with additional improvements in most outcomes in the second week. Adherence was again high.

CONCLUSIONS

Together, these findings show that a brief internet-based intervention may be a highly accepted and effective way of improving self-esteem in people suffering from BDD symptoms.

Going deeper into eating and body image pathology in males: Prevalence of muscle dysmorphia and eating disorders in a university representative sample

Disorders associated with body dissatisfaction such eating disorders (ED) and muscle dysmorphia (MD) in males are understudied and surrounded by controversy regarding their nosological aspects. The current study examined the prevalence rates of clinical cases of ED and MD through a two-phase study with gold standard clinical interview in a representative sample of 850 Spanish undergraduate men, of whom 141 were interviewed. Levels of body dissatisfaction, compulsive exercise, anxious-depressive symptoms and the amount of physical activity were also explored. A prevalence rate for ED of 1.4% and 1.3% for MD was found. No differences were observed between the clinical groups on scales related to body image, supporting the current perspective that MD as well as ED and Body Dysmorphic Disorder could be clustered in a new spectrum of body image disorders, where the behaviours performed to achieve body change could range from restriction or muscularity-oriented eating alterations to pathological exercise or cosmetic surgery. The usefulness of the cut-off points of the screening questionnaires in MD and ED in males are discussed.

Hair pulling disorder and skin picking disorder have relatively limited associations with negative emotionality: A meta-analytic comparison across obsessive-compulsive and related disorders

The obsessive-compulsive and related disorders (OCRD) chapter in DSM-5 includes two relatively distinct groups of disorders: (1) Compulsive disorders [i.e., obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), body dysmorphic disorder (BDD), hoarding disorder (HD)] and (2) grooming disorders [i.e., skin picking disorder (SPD) and hair pulling disorder (HPD)]. The two groups may relate differently with negative emotionality; however, the literature has produced mixed findings. The current study sought to quantify the concurrent association between negative emotionality and each of the five OCRDs. We conducted systematic reviews of research reporting correlations between (1) negative emotionality (i.e., depression, anxiety, stress, negative affect, and neuroticism) and (2) severity of OCRD symptoms in both clinical and non-clinical adult samples. We used three-level meta-analytic models to estimate the size of the correlations. Negative emotionality had robust positive correlation with symptoms of OCD [k = 156, r = 0.44, 95% CI= 0.43-0.46], BDD [k = 58, r = 0.45, 95% CI= 0.43-48], and HD [k = 67, r = 0.39, 95% CI= 0.36-0.42] but significantly smaller correlation with SPD [k = 31, r = 0.31, 95% CI= 0.27-0.34] and HPD [k = 24, r = 0.28, 95% CI= 0.25-0.32]. Overall, the results indicate that grooming disorders have relatively limited associations with negative emotionality. Implications for classification of OCRDs within the broader taxonomy of psychopathology are discussed.

Prevalence and Correlates of Hair Pulling Disorder and Skin Picking Disorder in an Acute Psychiatric Sample

Hair pulling disorder (HPD; trichotillomania) and skin picking disorder (SPD; excoriation disorder) are understudied psychiatric disorders. The aim of this study was to examine the prevalence and correlates of HPD and SPD in an acute psychiatric sample. Semistructured interviews and self-report measures were administered to patients in a psychiatric partial hospital (N = 599). The past-month prevalence of HPD and SPD was 2.3% and 9%, respectively. HPD and SPD had highly similar clinical characteristics and a strong co-occurrence. Patients with HPD/SPD were significantly younger than other patients and more likely to be female. Logistic regression controlling for age and sex showed that diagnosis of HPD/SPD was not significantly associated with suicidal ideation, suicidal behaviors, nonsuicidal self-injury, or emotional disorder diagnoses (e.g., borderline personality disorder, major depressive disorder). HPD/SPD status was significantly associated with an increased risk of generalized anxiety disorder. However, patients with HPD/SPD did not differ from other patients on self-report measures of generalized anxiety, depression, and distress intolerance. HPD and SPD are common and frequently co-occurring disorders in psychiatric settings.

The Generic BFRB Scale-8 (GBS-8): a transdiagnostic scale to measure the severity of body-focused repetitive behaviours

BACKGROUND

Body-focused repetitive behaviours (BFRBs) such as skin picking and hair pulling are frequent but under-diagnosed and under-treated psychological conditions. As of now, most studies use symptom-specific BFRB scales. However, a transdiagnostic scale is needed in view of the high co-morbidity of different BFRBs.

AIMS

We aimed to assess the reliability as well as concurrent and divergent validity of a newly developed transdiagnostic BFRB scale.

METHOD

For the first time, we administered the 8-item Generic BFRB Scale (GBS-8) as well as the Repetitive Body Focused Behavior Scale (RBFBS), modified for adults, in 279 individuals with BFRBs. The GBS-8 builds upon the Skin Picking Scale-Revised (SPS-R), but has been adapted to capture different BFRBs concurrently. A total of 170 participants (61%) were re-assessed after 6 weeks to determine the test-retest reliability of the scale.

RESULTS

Similar to the SPS-R, factor analysis yielded two dimensions termed symptom severity and impairment. The test-retest reliability of the scale was satisfactory (r = .72, p<.001). Concurrent validity (r = .74) with the RBFBS was good (correlational indexes for concurrent validity were significantly higher than that for discriminant validity).

DISCUSSION

The GBS-8 appears to be a reliable and valid global measure of BFRBs. We recommend usage of the scale in combination with specific BFRB scales to facilitate comparability across studies on obsessive-compulsive spectrum disorders.

A smartphone app for the prevention and early intervention of body dysmorphic disorder: Development and evaluation of the content, usability, and aesthetics

Body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) is an impairing condition characterized by excessive appearance concerns that frequently begin in adolescence, thus making this phase an eminent target for prevention and early intervention. We developed a cognitive-behavioral app-based program (AINA) intended for prevention and early intervention of BDD. As part of the iterative development process, perceptions of usability, aesthetics, and content were investigated. A sample of 38 adolescents and young adults aged between 14 and 21 years tested the app in a laboratory setting and completed a survey of diagnostic and user experience questionnaires. Overall, usability, aesthetics, and content of the app received positive evaluations. Regression analyses did not point to any large effects of age, gender, years of education, self-esteem, or BDD symptom severity on user evaluations. On average, participants had no concerns about privacy or data security of the app, indicating that these aspects will presumably not act as barriers to usage. Altogether, the present results are encouraging. Future research needs to examine whether AINA is an efficacious measure for prevention and early intervention of BDD.

Adverse childhood experiences and body dysmorphic symptoms: A meta-analysis

Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) are considered a risk factor for the development of various forms of mental disorders, including body dysmorphic disorder (BDD). The aim of the present work was to examine the association between ACEs and BDD symptomatology and to identify features of studies that might moderate this association. We conducted a three-level meta-analysis of 27 articles that included 9167 participants. Results showed that the types of ACE examined (total ACE, abuse, neglect, teasing, and bullying) were positively associated with BDD symptomatology. Specifically, a low to moderate association was found for ACE overall, defined as abuse, neglect, bullying, or teasing (r = 0.289, 95% confidence interval (CI) [.240,.337), for bullying (r = 0.282, 95% CI [.206,.354]), and for abuse (r = 0.223, 95% CI [.169,.276]) were found; and a moderate to large association was found for experienced teasing (r = 0.423, 95% CI [.360,.482]). In addition, moderator analyses of the association between ACE and BDD symptomatology resulted in a predictive model in which the type of ACE, type of sample, and gender of participants moderated the magnitude of the association between ACEs and BDD symptomatology.

The comorbidity structure of fear, distress and compulsive disorders in an acute psychiatric sample

Body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) and obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), collectively referred to as compulsive disorders, have typically not been included in structural research on the internalizing spectrum due to low prevalence in community samples. The current study examined the higher-order structure of anxiety, depressive and compulsive disorders among patients in a psychiatric partial hospital program (N = 2,178). We applied confirmatory factor analysis to diagnostic data obtained at admission and compared several competing models of the comorbidity structure. A one-factor model accounted well for the co-occurrence of all the disorders. A two-factor model comprised of fear and distress factors, wherein compulsive disorders loaded on fear, also fit the data well. However, a very large factor correlation (r = 0.86) suggested limited discriminant validity of fear and distress in the sample. Alternate models that featured a distinct compulsivity factor were not viable owing to large correlations between fear and compulsive disorders. Overall, our findings indicate that a broad internalizing dimensions underlies not only anxiety and depression, but also compulsive disorders, in an acute psychiatric population. Future studies using symptom-level data are needed to replicate these results and determine the structure of internalizing disorders from the bottom up, starting with narrowly defined symptom components.