Association of strength and plyometric exercises with change of direction performances

Identification of potential risk factors for lower limb injuries in female team-sport athletes: a prospective cohort study

OBJECTIVES

The purpose of this prospective cohort study was to assess the associations between lower limb injuries in female team-sport athletes and a number of factors. The potential risk factors explored included (1) lower limb strength, (2) history of life-event stress, (3) family history of ACL injuries, (4) menstrual history, and (5) history of oral contraception use.

METHODS

One hundred and thirty-five female athletes aged between 14 and 31 years (mean: 18.8 ± 3.6 years) from rugby union (n = 47), soccer (n = 72), and netball (n = 16) volunteered to participate in this study. Demographics, history of life-event stress, injury history and baseline data were obtained prior to the competitive season. The following strength measures were collected: isometric hip adductor and abductor strength, eccentric knee flexor strength and single leg jumping kinetics. Athletes were then followed for 12 months, and all lower limb injuries sustained were recorded.

RESULTS

One hundred and nine athletes provided one-year follow-up injury data, of whom, 44 suffered at least one lower limb injury. All athletes who reported high scores for negative life-event stress sustained lower limb injuries. Non-contact lower limb injury was positively associated with weak hip adductor strength (OR: 0.88; 95%CI: 0.78-0.98; p = 0.017), and between-limb adductor (OR: 5.65; 95%CI: 1.61-19.7.; p = 0.007) and abductor (OR: 1.95; 95%CI: 1.03-3.71; p = 0.039) strength asymmetries.

CONCLUSION

History of life event stress, hip adductor strength, and between-limb adductor and abductor strength asymmetries offer potential novel avenues for investigating injury risk factors in female athletes.

The Influence of Functional Movement and Strength upon Linear and Change of Direction Speed in Male and Female Basketball Players

The present study aimed to analyse the relationship between functional movement and strength variables upon linear speed (Ls) and change of direction (COD) based on gender. It also aimed to identify the determinants of performance of Ls and COD according to gender. Fifty basketball players (54% female) completed the assessment in which the weight-bearing dorsiflexion test, the Y-balance test, the unilateral countermovement jump, the unilateral drop jump, the unilateral triple hop test, Ls and CODs were performed. Speed variables were divided according to time execution into "low-performance" and "high-performance" to establish a comparison between performance groups. Strength variables significantly influenced speed tests' performance in both genders (p < 0.05). For males, the greater the Ls, the higher the change of direction deficit (p < 0.001). Multiple regression analysis revealed that a long and vertical stretch-shortening cycle (SSC) was the most influential physical ability for speed performance in females (45-65% variance explained; p < 0.001), while in males, a short and horizontal SSC played a significant role (30-61% variance explained; p < 0.022). These results suggest that gender should be considered in programming strength training to improve speed, as each gender will benefit most from the application of different force-orientations and different SSC. Also, the faster the male players were in Ls, the less efficient they were in the COD performance. This is why for men, it would be recommended to perform eccentric exercises along with deceleration and technique drills to improve COD speed.

Association between Lower Body Qualities and Change-of-Direction Performance: A Meta-Analysis

The aim of the present study is to determine the associations between lower body muscle strength qualities and change of direction (CoD) performance. Three databases were used to perform a systematic literature search up to September 30, 2022. Based on the studies that met the inclusion criteria, we calculated Pearson's r correlation coefficient to examine the relationships between muscle strength qualities and CoD performance. The quality of the studies included was evaluated by the modified version of the Downs and Black Quality Index Tool. Heterogeneity was determined via the Q statistic and I 2, and Egger's test was used to assess small study bias. The results revealed that lower body maximal strength (pooled: r=- 0.54, dynamic: r=- 0.60, static: r=- 0.41), joint strength (pooled: r=- 0.59, EXT-ecc: r=- 0.63, FLEX-ecc: r=- 0.59), reactive strength (r=- 0.42) and power (pooled: r=- 0.45, jump height: r=- 0.41, jump distance: r=- 0.60, peak power: r=- 0.41) were negatively and moderately related to CoD performance. To conclude, the results highlight that a number of muscle strength qualities are associated with CoD performance and are pertinent to specific phases of a directional change. It should be noted that the conclusions of this study do not establish causality, and further research is needed to better understand their training effects and underlying mechanisms.

Effects of Plyometric Training Direction on Physical Performance in Basketball Players

PURPOSE

The aim of this study was to analyze the effects of plyometric training direction on jumping, sprinting, and change-of-direction ability in basketball players.

METHODS

Forty male basketball players (21.8 [3.8] y), from 4 teams that competed in regional and national championships, were randomly assigned to 1 of 4 groups: (1) vertical jump group, (2) horizontal jump group, (3) vertical and horizontal jump group, and (4) control group. The subjects followed a plyometric training program twice a week for 6 weeks, differing in the execution direction of the jumps. All groups performed the same total training volume of acyclic and cyclic jumps controlled through the number of contacts per session. Pretraining and posttraining measurements included (1) rocket jump, (2) Abalakov jump, (3) horizontal jump, (4) 20-m linear sprint, and (5) V-Cut change-of-direction test.

RESULTS

The vertical and horizontal jump group showed significant increases in all performance variables examined, except for linear sprint performance, in which no group improved. The vertical jump group showed significant improvements in rocket jump and Abalakov jump (P < .01), but worsened significantly in terms of sprint performance (P < .05). The horizontal jump group showed significant increases in rocket jump and horizontal jump (P < .001-.01). Furthermore, all experimental groups showed improved V-Cut change-of-direction test performance.

CONCLUSIONS

These results indicate that combining vertical and horizontal jumps induces improvements in more capabilities than does training only vertical or horizontal jumps with the same training volume. Training only vertical or horizontal jumps will improve performance mainly in vertically or horizontally oriented tasks, respectively.

Change of Direction Ability as a Sensitive Marker of Adaptation to Different Training Configurations, and Different Populations: Results from Four Experiments

This article includes four separate experiments. In the first experiment male beach handball players (n = 24) were randomly assigned to regular training (n = 12) or plyometric and sprint training (n = 12). In the second experiment, male players were assigned to a handball practice only (n = 12), a plyometric training (n = 12), or an eccentric-overload (e.g., versa-pulley machine) training group (n = 12). In the third experiment, participants were assigned to padel training (n = 12) or specific on-court neuromuscular technical actions (n = 12). In the fourth experiment, females between 50-59 years (n = 25), 60-64 years (n = 25), and 65-70 years (n = 25) completed 10 weeks of bench stepping training involving jumps, and were compared to age-matched controls (n = 45). The COD ability was assessed with the 10-m COD ability test (experiments one and two), the COD ability test with 90º and 180º turns (third experiment), and with the timed-up-and-go test (fourth experiment). In experiment one, greater COD improvement was noted in the experimental group compared to the control group (p < 0.05). In experiment two, both intervention groups similarly improved COD when compared to the control group (p < 0.05). In experiment three, although no significant group-time interactions were observed for COD, the experimental group improved all COD measures pre-post-training (p < 0.05), with a larger effect size for COD with 180° turn to the right compared to the control group (effect size = 0.8 vs. 0.3). In experiment four, the three training groups improved COD ability compared to the control group (p < 0.05). In conclusion, COD is a sensitive marker of adaptation to different training configurations in these diverse groups.

Alternatives to common approaches for training change of direction performance: a scoping review

BACKGROUND

Research focuses heavily upon the effect of strength and power training on change of direction performance. The objective of this scoping review is to highlight alternative approaches to training change of direction.

METHODS

Four databases (Scopus, PubMed, Web of Science and SPORTDiscus) were searched with no date restrictions. To be included studies must (i) investigate change of direction performance following an intervention or investigate the relationships between variables of interest and change of direction performance; (ii) recruit participants > 18 years old; (iii) recruit participants involved in competitive sport. The majority of included studies investigated the effect of strength and/or power training, or, relationships between strength and/or power variables with change of direction performance.

RESULTS

Despite fewer studies, alternative training methods resulted in greater improvements (compared with strength and/or power) in change of direction performance, with smaller training durations. Few studies included reactive agility as an outcome measure.

CONCLUSION

Despite much of the literature focusing on strength and/or power, there are alternative training modalities that demonstrate merit for improving change of direction performance. Future studies should investigate the effect of alternative training interventions on reactive agility performance, to provide a more valid indication of transfer to competition.

Effect of Strength vs. Plyometric Training upon Change of Direction Performance in Young Female Handball Players

The aim of the current study was to investigate the effect of six weeks of strength vs. plyometric training upon change of direction (COD) performance. A total of 21 young female handball players were randomly assigned to either a strength group: (n = 11, age: 17.5 ± 2.3 years, height: 1.69 ± 0.05 m, weight: 65.8 ± 5.9 kg) training bilateral, unilateral and later squats; or a plyometric training group (n = 10, age: 17.1 ± 2.4 years, height: 1.73 ± 0.07 m, weight: 67.1 ± 9.3 kg) training drop jumps, unilateral countermovement jumps and skate-jumps. Groups were assigned after being pair-matched based upon baseline COD performance. The training modalities were matched in training impulse. A force- (180°) and velocity-oriented (45°) COD of 20 m was used to measure changes in COD performance (10 m + COD + 10 m). Total time (s) to complete the COD test was defined as the performance variable. The level of significance was set at p < 0.05. The two-way ANOVA showed no group effect upon COD performance. A significant effect was only observed for the strength training group in the last 10 m and total 20 m of the force-oriented COD (F ≥ 5.51; p ≤ 0.04; η2 ≥ 0.36). Both groups improved performance in other strength- and power-related tests. It was concluded that only the strength training program was effective in developing force-oriented COD performance in the studied population, while the plyometric training program was not sufficient. Both training modalities are useful for improving performance in different strength and power tests in young female handball players.

Association of Performance in Strength and Plyometric Tests with Change of Direction Performance in Young Female Team-Sport Athletes

The change of direction (COD) ability is a task-specific skill dependent on different factors such as the degree of the turn, which has led to differentiating CODs as more force- (>90°) or velocity-oriented (<90°). Considering force and velocity requirements is of importance when designing sport-specific training programs for enhancing COD performance. Thus, 25 female handball and soccer players participated in this study, which investigated the association between three different strength and plyometric exercises and force- and velocity-oriented COD performance. By utilizing the median split analysis, the participants were further divided into a fast (n = 8) and a slow (n = 8) COD group, to investigate differences in step kinematics between fast and slow performers. The correlational analysis revealed that the bilateral back squat and unilateral quarter squat were significantly associated with several force- and velocity-oriented COD performance (r = -0.46 to -0.64), while the association between plyometric and COD performance was limited (r < 0.44). The fast COD group revealed higher levels of strength, jump height, peak velocities, higher step frequencies, shorter ground contact times, and greater acceleration and braking power (d > 1.29, p < 0.03). It was concluded that the observed correlation between strength and COD performance might be due to stronger athletes being able to produce more workload in a shorter time, which was supported by the step kinematics.

Effects of Plyometric Jump Training in Female Soccer Player's Physical Fitness: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis

We aimed to assess the effects of plyometric jump training (PJT) on female soccer player’s physical fitness. To this aim, a systematic review with meta-analysis (SRMA) was conducted. The electronic databases PubMed, MEDLINE, Web of Science, and SCOPUS were used. To qualify for inclusion, peer-reviewed studies must have included (i) a PJT programme of ≥2 weeks, (ii) healthy athletes, (iii) a control group, and (iv) physical fitness outcomes (e.g., jump; sprint). Studies were excluded if (i) they incorporated injuried female soccer players, (ii) did not involve PJT or an active control group, (iv) lack of baseline and/or follow-up data. Data was meta-analyzed using the inverse variance random-effects model. Ten moderate-to-high quality studies were included in the analyses, comprising 13 training groups (n = 140) and 10 control groups (n = 110). Small to large (ES = 0.60–2.24; p = 0.040 to <0.001) effects were noted for countermovement jump, drop jump, kicking performance, linear sprint, change of direction speed, and endurance. The moderator analyses (i.e., PJT duration, age groups, competitive level, and soccer experience) revealed no significant differences between groups. In conclusion, PJT may improve the physical fitness of female soccer players. Such improvements might be expected after PJT interventions with six or more weeks of duration, and in players with different chronological ages, competitive levels and soccer experience.