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Yo Y, Kawasaki K, Moriuchi K, Shiro R, Shimaoka M, Matsumura N. The Effect of Sexual Intercourse during Pregnancy on Preterm Birth: Prospective Single-Center Cohort Study in Japan. Healthcare (Basel) 2023; 11:healthcare11111657. [PMID: 37297797 DOI: 10.3390/healthcare11111657] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2023] [Revised: 05/17/2023] [Accepted: 06/01/2023] [Indexed: 06/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Several studies in Europe and the United States have shown that sexual intercourse (SI) during pregnancy is not associated with preterm birth. However, it is unclear whether these findings apply to pregnant Japanese women. The aim of this prospective cohort study was to elucidate the influence of SI during pregnancy on preterm birth in Japan. A total of 182 women who underwent antenatal care and delivery were included in this study. The frequency of SI was assessed using a questionnaire, and its association with preterm birth was analyzed. The results showed that SI during pregnancy was associated with a significantly higher cumulative preterm birth rate (p = 0.018), which was more pronounced for SI more than once a week (p < 0.0001). Multivariate analysis showed that SI, bacterial vaginosis in the second trimester, previous preterm birth, and smoking during pregnancy were independent risk factors for preterm birth. The combination of SI and second trimester bacterial vaginosis was associated with a 60% preterm birth rate, whereas either factor alone was associated with a lower rate, suggesting a synergistic effect (p < 0.0001). Future studies are needed to investigate the effect of prohibiting SI in pregnant women with bacterial vaginosis on preterm birth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoshie Yo
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Faculty of Medicine, Kindai University, 377-2 Ohnohigashi, Osaka-Sayama 589-8511, Osaka, Japan
| | - Kaoru Kawasaki
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Faculty of Medicine, Kindai University, 377-2 Ohnohigashi, Osaka-Sayama 589-8511, Osaka, Japan
| | - Kaori Moriuchi
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Faculty of Medicine, Kindai University, 377-2 Ohnohigashi, Osaka-Sayama 589-8511, Osaka, Japan
| | - Reona Shiro
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Faculty of Medicine, Kindai University, 377-2 Ohnohigashi, Osaka-Sayama 589-8511, Osaka, Japan
| | - Masao Shimaoka
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Saiseikai Tondabayashi Hospital, 1-3-36 Koyodai, Tondabayashi 584-0082, Osaka, Japan
| | - Noriomi Matsumura
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Faculty of Medicine, Kindai University, 377-2 Ohnohigashi, Osaka-Sayama 589-8511, Osaka, Japan
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Nori W, H-Hameed B. Vaginal microbes confounders and implications on women's health. World J Clin Cases 2023; 11:2119-2122. [PMID: 36998952 PMCID: PMC10044948 DOI: 10.12998/wjcc.v11.i9.2119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2022] [Revised: 01/30/2023] [Accepted: 03/01/2023] [Indexed: 03/16/2023] Open
Abstract
The vagina has diverse vaginal microbes (Vm). A disturbance in the delicate balance maintained in Vm is linked to women's obstetrical and reproductive tract problems. Vaginal microbes play an essential role in protecting the health of the female reproductive tract by alleviating gynecological infection. However, Vm profiling has many confounders that need to be addressed during sampling, including age, race, pregnancy, medical illness, and smoking. Vm profiling improves reproduction odds, may serve as a marker for genital malignancies and have a therapeutic application in menopausal women and women with cervical cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wassan Nori
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Mustansiriyah University, Baghdad 10052, Al Saydyah, Iraq
| | - Ban H-Hameed
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Mustansiriyah University, Baghdad 10052, Al Saydyah, Iraq
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Commensal Lactobacilli Metabolically Contribute to Cervical Epithelial Homeostasis in a Species-Specific Manner. mSphere 2023; 8:e0045222. [PMID: 36629413 PMCID: PMC9942568 DOI: 10.1128/msphere.00452-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
In reproductive-age women, the vaginal microbiome is typically dominated by one or a few Lactobacillus species, including Lactobacillus crispatus, Lactobacillus iners, Lactobacillus paragasseri, Lactobacillus mulieris, and Lactobaccillus crispatus, has been associated with optimal cervicovaginal health; however, much is still unknown about how other lactobacilli metabolically contribute to cervicovaginal health. We hypothesized that metabolites of each Lactobacillus species differ and uniquely contribute to health and homeostasis. To address this hypothesis, we utilized a human three-dimensional (3D) cervical epithelial cell model in conjunction with genomics analyses and untargeted metabolomics to determine the metabolic contributions of less-studied vaginal lactobacilli-L. iners, L. paragasseri, and L. mulieris. Our study validated that vaginal lactobacilli exhibit a close phylogenetic relationship. Genomic findings from publicly available strains and those used in our study indicated that L. iners is metabolically distinct from other species of lactobacilli, likely due to a reduced genome size. Lactobacilli and mock controls were distinguishable based on global metabolic profiles. We identified 95 significantly altered metabolites (P < 0.05) between individual lactobacilli and mock controls. Metabolites related to amino acid metabolism were shared among the lactobacilli. N-Acetylated amino acids with potential antimicrobial properties were significantly elevated in a species-specific manner. L. paragasseri and L. iners shared aromatic, but not carbohydrate-derived, lactic acid metabolites with potential antimicrobial properties that may contribute to homeostasis of the cervicovaginal environment. Additionally, L. iners uniquely altered lipid metabolism, which may be a sign of adaptation to the cervicovaginal niche. Overall, these findings further elucidate the metabolic contributions of three key vaginal Lactobacillus species in gynecological health. IMPORTANCE Lactobacillus species contribute to cervicovaginal health by their production of lactic acid and other antimicrobial compounds. Yet, much is still unknown regarding the metabolic potential of lesser-studied but common vaginal lactobacilli. Here, we used untargeted metabolomics coupled with our 3D cervical epithelial cell model to identify metabolic differences among vaginal Lactobacillus species (Lactobacillus iners, Lactobacillus paragasseri, and Lactobacillus mulieris) and how those differences related to maintaining homeostasis of the cervical epithelium. Human 3D cell models are essential tools for studying host-bacteria interactions and reducing confounding factors inherent in clinical studies. Therefore, these unique models allowed us to decipher the putative lactobacilli mechanisms that contribute to their roles in health or disease. Metabolic analyses revealed distinct profiles of each Lactobacillus species but also shared metabolic contributions associated with antimicrobial activity: amino acid metabolism, N-acetylated amino acids, and aromatic lactic acids. These patterns provided validation of metabolites associated with health in clinical studies and provided novel targets, including immunomodulatory and antimicrobial metabolites, for postbiotic therapies.
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Chopra C, Bhushan I, Mehta M, Koushal T, Gupta A, Sharma S, Kumar M, Khodor SA, Sharma S. Vaginal microbiome: considerations for reproductive health. Future Microbiol 2022; 17:1501-1513. [DOI: 10.2217/fmb-2022-0112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022] Open
Abstract
The microbial communities are an indispensable part of the human defense system and coexist with humans as symbionts, contributing to the metabolic functions and immune defense against pathogens. An ecologically stable vaginal microbiota is dominated by Lactobacillus species, which plays an important role in the prevention of genital infections by controlling the vaginal pH, reducing glycogen to lactic acid, and stimulating bacteriocins and hydrogen peroxide. In contrast, an abnormal vaginal microbial composition is associated with an increased risk of bacterial vaginosis, trichomoniasis, sexually transmitted diseases, preterm labor and other birth defects. This microbial diversity is affected by race, ethnicity, pregnancy, hormonal changes, sexual activities, hygiene practices and other conditions. In the present review, we discuss the changes in the microbial community of the vaginal region at different stages of a female's life cycle and its influence on her reproductive health and pathological conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chitrakshi Chopra
- School of Biotechnology, Shri Mata Vaishno Devi University, Katra, Jammu & Kashmir, 182320, India
| | - Indu Bhushan
- School of Biotechnology, Shri Mata Vaishno Devi University, Katra, Jammu & Kashmir, 182320, India
| | - Malvika Mehta
- School of Biotechnology, Shri Mata Vaishno Devi University, Katra, Jammu & Kashmir, 182320, India
| | - Tanvi Koushal
- School of Biotechnology, Shri Mata Vaishno Devi University, Katra, Jammu & Kashmir, 182320, India
| | - Amita Gupta
- Department of Gynecology, Government Medical College, Jammu, (J&K), 180001, India
| | - Sarika Sharma
- Department of Sponsored Research, Division of Research & Development, Lovely Professional University, Phagwara, 144411, India
| | - Manoj Kumar
- Research Department, Sidra Medicine, Doha, 26999, Qatar
| | | | - Sandeep Sharma
- Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences, Lovely Professional University, Phagwara, Punjab, 144411, India
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Morselli S, Foschi C, Laghi L, Zagonari S, Patuelli G, Camboni T, Ceccarani C, Consolandi C, Djusse ME, Pedna MF, Marangoni A, Severgnini M, Sambri V. Torquetenovirus in pregnancy: Correlation with vaginal microbiome, metabolome and pro-inflammatory cytokines. Front Microbiol 2022; 13:998849. [PMID: 36160242 PMCID: PMC9501707 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.998849] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2022] [Accepted: 08/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Torquetenovirus (TTV) is a negative sense, single-stranded DNA virus present in many body fluids of apparently healthy individuals. At present, it is considered a non-pathogenic endogenous virus. TTV can be detected in the vagina of pregnant women, its abundance being modulated with the extent of immune system activation. Until now, there is only scarce information regarding the association between TTV and the composition of the vaginal environment. Therefore, this study aimed to assess the presence of TTV in the vaginal ecosystem of a cohort of white women with a normal pregnancy (n = 60) at different gestational stages (first, second and third trimester) and in 9 subjects suffering a first trimester miscarriage. For each woman, we determined (i) the presence and titer of TTV, (ii) the vaginal bacterial composition by means of Nugent score and 16S rRNA gene sequencing, (iii) the vaginal metabolic profiles through 1H-NMR spectroscopy, and (iv) the vaginal concentration of two pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-6 and IL-8). More than one third of women were found negative for TTV at all gestational stages. Although not statistically significant, the positivity for TTV dropped from 53.3% in the first to 36.6% in the third trimester. TTV loads varied greatly among vaginal samples, ranging between 2 × 101 and 2 × 105 copies/reaction. No difference in TTV prevalence and loads was observed between women with normal pregnancies and miscarriages. The presence of TTV was more common in women with a higher vaginal leucocyte count (p = 0.02). The levels of IL-6 (p = 0.02), IL-8 (p = 0.03), propionate (p = 0.001) and cadaverine (p = 0.006) were significantly higher in TTV-positive samples. TTV titer was positively correlated with the concentrations of 4-hydroxyphenyllactate (p < 0.0001), isoleucine (p = 0.01) and phenylalanine (p = 0.04). TTV-positive samples were characterized by a higher relative abundance of Sneathia (p = 0.04) and Shuttleworthia (p = 0.0009). In addition, a trend toward a decrease of Lactobacillus crispatus and Lactobacillus jensenii, and an increase of Lactobacillus iners was observed for TTV-positive samples. In conclusion, we found that TTV is quite common in women with normal pregnancy outcomes, representing a possible predictor of local immune status.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Morselli
- Microbiology Unit, Department of Specialized, Experimental and Diagnostic Medicine (DIMES), University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Claudio Foschi
- Microbiology Unit, Department of Specialized, Experimental and Diagnostic Medicine (DIMES), University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
- Microbiology Unit, IRCCS Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria di Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Luca Laghi
- Department of Agricultural and Food Sciences (DISTAL), Centre of Foodomics, University of Bologna, Cesena, Italy
- Interdepartmental Centre for Agri-Food Industrial Research (CIRI Agrifood), University of Bologna, Cesena, Italy
| | | | | | - Tania Camboni
- Institute of Biomedical Technologies, National Research Council, Segrate, Italy
| | - Camilla Ceccarani
- Institute of Biomedical Technologies, National Research Council, Segrate, Italy
| | - Clarissa Consolandi
- Institute of Biomedical Technologies, National Research Council, Segrate, Italy
| | - Marielle Ezekielle Djusse
- Microbiology Unit, Department of Specialized, Experimental and Diagnostic Medicine (DIMES), University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Maria Federica Pedna
- Great Romagna Hub Laboratory, Unit of Microbiology, Pievesestina di Cesena, Italy
| | - Antonella Marangoni
- Microbiology Unit, Department of Specialized, Experimental and Diagnostic Medicine (DIMES), University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
- *Correspondence: Antonella Marangoni
| | - Marco Severgnini
- Institute of Biomedical Technologies, National Research Council, Segrate, Italy
| | - Vittorio Sambri
- Microbiology Unit, Department of Specialized, Experimental and Diagnostic Medicine (DIMES), University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
- Great Romagna Hub Laboratory, Unit of Microbiology, Pievesestina di Cesena, Italy
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Severgnini M, Morselli S, Camboni T, Ceccarani C, Laghi L, Zagonari S, Patuelli G, Pedna MF, Sambri V, Foschi C, Consolandi C, Marangoni A. A Deep Look at the Vaginal Environment During Pregnancy and Puerperium. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2022; 12:838405. [PMID: 35656029 PMCID: PMC9152327 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2022.838405] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2022] [Accepted: 04/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
A deep comprehension of the vaginal ecosystem may hold promise for unraveling the pathophysiology of pregnancy and may provide novel biomarkers to identify subjects at risk of maternal-fetal complications. In this prospective study, we assessed the characteristics of the vaginal environment in a cohort of pregnant women throughout their different gestational ages and puerperium. Both the vaginal bacterial composition and the vaginal metabolic profiles were analyzed. A total of 63 Caucasian women with a successful pregnancy and 9 subjects who had a first trimester miscarriage were enrolled. For the study, obstetric examinations were scheduled along the three trimester phases (9-13, 20-24, 32-34 gestation weeks) and puerperium (40-55 days after delivery). Two vaginal swabs were collected at each time point, to assess the vaginal microbiome profiling (by Nugent score and 16S rRNA gene sequencing) and the vaginal metabolic composition (1H-NMR spectroscopy). During pregnancy, the vaginal microbiome underwent marked changes, with a significant decrease in overall diversity, and increased stability. Over time, we found a significant increase of Lactobacillus and a decrease of several genera related to bacterial vaginosis (BV), such as Prevotella, Atopobium and Sneathia. It is worth noting that the levels of Bifidobacterium spp. tended to decrease at the end of pregnancy. At the puerperium, a significantly lower content of Lactobacillus and higher levels of Gardnerella, Prevotella, Atopobium, and Streptococcus were observed. Women receiving an intrapartum antibiotic prophylaxis for Group B Streptococcus (GBS) were characterized by a vaginal abundance of Prevotella compared to untreated women. Analysis of bacterial relative abundances highlighted an increased abundance of Fusobacterium in women suffering a first trimester abortion, at all taxonomic levels. Lactobacillus abundance was strongly correlated with higher levels of lactate, sarcosine, and many amino acids (i.e., isoleucine, leucine, phenylalanine, valine, threonine, tryptophan). Conversely, BV-associated genera, such as Gardnerella, Atopobium, and Sneathia, were related to amines (e.g., putrescine, methylamine), formate, acetate, alcohols, and short-chain fatty-acids (i.e., butyrate, propionate).
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Severgnini
- Institute of Biomedical Technologies – National Research Council, Milan, Italy
| | - Sara Morselli
- Microbiology, Department of Experimental, Diagnostic and Specialty Medicine (DIMES), University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Tania Camboni
- Institute of Biomedical Technologies – National Research Council, Milan, Italy
| | - Camilla Ceccarani
- Institute of Biomedical Technologies – National Research Council, Milan, Italy
| | - Luca Laghi
- Department of Agricultural and Food Sciences, University of Bologna, Cesena, Italy
| | | | | | | | - Vittorio Sambri
- Microbiology, Department of Experimental, Diagnostic and Specialty Medicine (DIMES), University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
- Unit of Microbiology, Greater Romagna Hub Laboratory, Cesena, Italy
| | - Claudio Foschi
- Microbiology, Department of Experimental, Diagnostic and Specialty Medicine (DIMES), University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Clarissa Consolandi
- Institute of Biomedical Technologies – National Research Council, Milan, Italy
| | - Antonella Marangoni
- Microbiology, Department of Experimental, Diagnostic and Specialty Medicine (DIMES), University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
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Severgnini M, Camboni T, Ceccarani C, Morselli S, Cantiani A, Zagonari S, Patuelli G, Pedna MF, Sambri V, Foschi C, Consolandi C, Marangoni A. Distribution of ermB, ermF, tet(W), and tet(M) Resistance Genes in the Vaginal Ecosystem of Women during Pregnancy and Puerperium. Pathogens 2021; 10:pathogens10121546. [PMID: 34959501 PMCID: PMC8705968 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens10121546] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2021] [Revised: 11/17/2021] [Accepted: 11/25/2021] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
The inhabitants of the vaginal ecosystem can harbor genetic determinants conferring antimicrobial resistance. However, detailed data about the distribution of resistance genes in the vaginal microbiome of pregnant women are still lacking. Therefore, we assessed the presence of macrolide (i.e., erm genes) and tetracycline (i.e., tet genes) resistance markers in the vaginal environment of Caucasian women at different gestational ages. Furthermore, the detection of resistance genes was related to the composition of the vaginal microbiota. A total of 228 vaginal samples, collected at different trimesters of pregnancy or during the puerperium, were tested for the presence of ermB, ermF, tet(W), and tet(M) by in-house end-point PCR assays. The composition of the vaginal microbiota was assessed through a microscopic evaluation (i.e., Nugent score) and by means of sequencing V3–V4 hypervariable regions of the bacterial 16 rRNA gene. Overall, the most detected resistance gene was tet(M) (76.7%), followed by ermB (55.2%). In 17% of women, mainly with a ‘normal’ vaginal microbiota, no resistance genes were found. Except for tet(W), a significant correlation between the positivity of resistance genes and a dysbiotic vaginal status (i.e., bacterial vaginosis (BV)) was noticed. Indeed, samples positive for at least one resistance determinant were characterized by a decrease in Lactobacillus spp. and an increase of BV-related genera (Prevotella, Gardnerella, Atopobium, Sneathia). A high predominance of vaginal Lactobacillus spp. (>85%) was associated with a lower risk of tet(W) gene detection, whereas the presence of Megasphaera (>1%) increased the risk of positivity for all analyzed genes. Different types of vaginal microbiota are associated with peculiar resistance profiles, being a lactobacilli-dominated ecosystem poor in or free of resistance genes. These data could open new perspectives for promoting maternal and neonatal health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Severgnini
- Institute of Biomedical Technologies, National Research Council, 20054 Segrate, Italy; (M.S.); (T.C.); (C.C.); (C.C.)
| | - Tania Camboni
- Institute of Biomedical Technologies, National Research Council, 20054 Segrate, Italy; (M.S.); (T.C.); (C.C.); (C.C.)
| | - Camilla Ceccarani
- Institute of Biomedical Technologies, National Research Council, 20054 Segrate, Italy; (M.S.); (T.C.); (C.C.); (C.C.)
| | - Sara Morselli
- Microbiology, Department of Experimental, Diagnostic and Specialty Medicine (DIMES), University of Bologna, 40128 Bologna, Italy; (S.M.); (A.C.); (V.S.); (A.M.)
| | - Alessia Cantiani
- Microbiology, Department of Experimental, Diagnostic and Specialty Medicine (DIMES), University of Bologna, 40128 Bologna, Italy; (S.M.); (A.C.); (V.S.); (A.M.)
| | - Sara Zagonari
- Family Advisory Health Centres, 48121 Ravenna, Italy; (S.Z.); (G.P.)
| | - Giulia Patuelli
- Family Advisory Health Centres, 48121 Ravenna, Italy; (S.Z.); (G.P.)
| | | | - Vittorio Sambri
- Microbiology, Department of Experimental, Diagnostic and Specialty Medicine (DIMES), University of Bologna, 40128 Bologna, Italy; (S.M.); (A.C.); (V.S.); (A.M.)
- Unit of Microbiology, Greater Romagna Hub Laboratory, 47023 Cesena, Italy;
| | - Claudio Foschi
- Microbiology, Department of Experimental, Diagnostic and Specialty Medicine (DIMES), University of Bologna, 40128 Bologna, Italy; (S.M.); (A.C.); (V.S.); (A.M.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +39-0512144513
| | - Clarissa Consolandi
- Institute of Biomedical Technologies, National Research Council, 20054 Segrate, Italy; (M.S.); (T.C.); (C.C.); (C.C.)
| | - Antonella Marangoni
- Microbiology, Department of Experimental, Diagnostic and Specialty Medicine (DIMES), University of Bologna, 40128 Bologna, Italy; (S.M.); (A.C.); (V.S.); (A.M.)
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Ansari A, Bose S, You Y, Park S, Kim Y. Molecular Mechanism of Microbiota Metabolites in Preterm Birth: Pathological and Therapeutic Insights. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:8145. [PMID: 34360908 PMCID: PMC8347546 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22158145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2021] [Revised: 07/24/2021] [Accepted: 07/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Preterm birth (PTB) refers to the birth of infants before 37 weeks of gestation and is a challenging issue worldwide. Evidence reveals that PTB is a multifactorial dysregulation mediated by a complex molecular mechanism. Thus, a better understanding of the complex molecular mechanisms underlying PTB is a prerequisite to explore effective therapeutic approaches. During early pregnancy, various physiological and metabolic changes occur as a result of endocrine and immune metabolism. The microbiota controls the physiological and metabolic mechanism of the host homeostasis, and dysbiosis of maternal microbial homeostasis dysregulates the mechanistic of fetal developmental processes and directly affects the birth outcome. Accumulating evidence indicates that metabolic dysregulation in the maternal or fetal membranes stimulates the inflammatory cytokines, which may positively progress the PTB. Although labour is regarded as an inflammatory process, it is still unclear how microbial dysbiosis could regulate the molecular mechanism of PTB. In this review based on recent research, we focused on both the pathological and therapeutic contribution of microbiota-generated metabolites to PTB and the possible molecular mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- AbuZar Ansari
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Ewha Medical Research Institute, College of Medicine, Ewha Womans University, Mokdong Hospital, Seoul 07985, Korea; (A.A.); (Y.Y.); (S.P.)
| | - Shambhunath Bose
- Department of Bioscience, Sri Sathya Sai University for Human Excellence, Navanihal, Okali Post, Kamalapur, Kalaburagi, Karnataka 585313, India;
| | - Youngah You
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Ewha Medical Research Institute, College of Medicine, Ewha Womans University, Mokdong Hospital, Seoul 07985, Korea; (A.A.); (Y.Y.); (S.P.)
| | - Sunwha Park
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Ewha Medical Research Institute, College of Medicine, Ewha Womans University, Mokdong Hospital, Seoul 07985, Korea; (A.A.); (Y.Y.); (S.P.)
| | - Youngju Kim
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Ewha Medical Research Institute, College of Medicine, Ewha Womans University, Mokdong Hospital, Seoul 07985, Korea; (A.A.); (Y.Y.); (S.P.)
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