A forward genetic screen reveals a primary role for Plasmodium falciparum Reticulocyte Binding Protein Homologue 2a and 2b in determining alternative erythrocyte invasion pathways

Transcriptome analysis reveals molecular targets of erythrocyte invasion phenotype diversity in natural Plasmodium falciparum isolates from Cameroon

Further understanding of the molecular mediators of alternative RBC invasion phenotypes in endemic malaria parasites will support malaria blood-stage vaccine or drug development. This study investigated the prevalence of sialic acid (SA)-dependent and SA-independent RBC invasion pathways in endemic Plasmodium falciparum parasites from Cameroon and compared the schizont stage transcriptomes in these two groups to uncover the wider repertoire of transcriptional variation associated with the use of alternative RBC invasion pathway phenotypes. A two-color flow cytometry-based invasion-inhibition assay against RBCs treated with neuraminidase, trypsin, and chymotrypsin and deep RNA sequencing of schizont stages harvested in the first ex vivo replication cycle in culture were employed in this investigation. RBC invasion phenotypes were determined for 63 isolates from asymptomatic children with uncomplicated malaria. Approximately 80% of the isolates invaded neuraminidase-treated but not chymotrypsin-treated RBCs, representing SA-independent pathways of RBC invasion. The schizont transcriptome profiles of 16 isolates with invasion phenotypes revealed a total of 5,136 gene transcripts, with 85% of isolates predicted at schizont stages. Two distinct transcriptome profile clusters belonging to SA-dependent and SA-independent parasites were obtained by data reduction with principal component analysis. Differential analysis of gene expression between the two clusters implicated, in addition to the well-characterized adhesins, the upregulation of genes encoding proteins mediating merozoite organelle discharges as well as several conserved, virulent, merozoite-associated, and exported proteins. The latter majority have been shown to have structural and physiological relevance to RBC surface remodeling and immune evasion in malaria and thus have potential as anti-invasion targets.

Whole-genome CRISPR screens to understand Apicomplexan-host interactions

Apicomplexan parasites are aetiological agents of numerous diseases in humans and livestock. Functional genomics studies in these parasites enable the identification of biological mechanisms and protein functions that can be targeted for therapeutic intervention. Recent improvements in forward genetics and whole-genome screens utilising CRISPR/Cas technology have revolutionised the functional analysis of genes during Apicomplexan infection of host cells. Here, we highlight key discoveries from CRISPR/Cas9 screens in Apicomplexa or their infected host cells and discuss remaining challenges to maximise this technology that may help answer fundamental questions about parasite-host interactions.

Identification of Potential Drug Targets in Erythrocyte Invasion Pathway of Plasmodium falciparum

The erythrocyte invasion phase plays a critical role in multiplication, sexual determination, and drug resistance in Plasmodium falciparum. In order to identify the critical genes and pathways in the erythrocyte invasion phase, the gene set (GSE129949) and the RNA-Seq count data for the W2mef strain were used for further analysis. An integrative bioinformatics study was performed to scrutinize genes as potential drug targets. 487 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) with an adjusted P value < 0.001 enriched 47 Gene Ontology (GO) terms that were over-represented based on hyper-geometric analysis P value < 0.01. Protein-Protein interaction network analysis was done using DEGs with higher confidence interactions (PPI score threshold = 0.7). MCODE and cytoHubba apps were utilized to define the hub proteins and rank them based on multiple topological analyses and MCODE scores. Furthermore, Gene Set Enrichment Analysis (GSEA) was carried out by using 322 gene sets from the MPMP database. The genes involved in multiple significant gene sets were determined by leading-edge analysis. Our study identified six genes encoding proteins that could be potential drug targets involved in the erythrocyte invasion phase related to merozoites motility, cell-cycle regulation, G-dependent protein kinase phosphorylation in schizonts, control of microtubule assembly, and sexual commitment. The druggability of those proteins was calculated based on the DCI (Drug Confidence Index) and predicted binding pockets' values. The protein that showed the best binding pocket value was subjected to deep learning-based virtual screening. The study identified the best small molecule inhibitors in terms of drug-binding score against the proteins for inhibitor identification.

An open dataset of Plasmodium falciparum genome variation in 7,000 worldwide samples

MalariaGEN is a data-sharing network that enables groups around the world to work together on the genomic epidemiology of malaria. Here we describe a new release of curated genome variation data on 7,000 Plasmodium falciparum samples from MalariaGEN partner studies in 28 malaria-endemic countries. High-quality genotype calls on 3 million single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and short indels were produced using a standardised analysis pipeline. Copy number variants associated with drug resistance and structural variants that cause failure of rapid diagnostic tests were also analysed.  Almost all samples showed genetic evidence of resistance to at least one antimalarial drug, and some samples from Southeast Asia carried markers of resistance to six commonly-used drugs. Genes expressed during the mosquito stage of the parasite life-cycle are prominent among loci that show strong geographic differentiation. By continuing to enlarge this open data resource we aim to facilitate research into the evolutionary processes affecting malaria control and to accelerate development of the surveillance toolkit required for malaria elimination.

An open dataset of Plasmodium falciparum genome variation in 7,000 worldwide samples

MalariaGEN is a data-sharing network that enables groups around the world to work together on the genomic epidemiology of malaria. Here we describe a new release of curated genome variation data on 7,000 Plasmodium falciparum samples from MalariaGEN partner studies in 28 malaria-endemic countries. High-quality genotype calls on 3 million single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and short indels were produced using a standardised analysis pipeline. Copy number variants associated with drug resistance and structural variants that cause failure of rapid diagnostic tests were also analysed.  Almost all samples showed genetic evidence of resistance to at least one antimalarial drug, and some samples from Southeast Asia carried markers of resistance to six commonly-used drugs. Genes expressed during the mosquito stage of the parasite life-cycle are prominent among loci that show strong geographic differentiation. By continuing to enlarge this open data resource we aim to facilitate research into the evolutionary processes affecting malaria control and to accelerate development of the surveillance toolkit required for malaria elimination.

Genomic and Genetic Approaches to Studying Antimalarial Drug Resistance and Plasmodium Biology

Recent progress in genomics and molecular genetics has empowered novel approaches to study gene functions in disease-causing pathogens. In the human malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum, the application of genome-based analyses, site-directed genome editing, and genetic systems that allow for temporal and quantitative regulation of gene and protein expression have been invaluable in defining the genetic basis of antimalarial resistance and elucidating candidate targets to accelerate drug discovery efforts. Using examples from recent studies, we review applications of some of these approaches in advancing our understanding of Plasmodium biology and illustrate their contributions and limitations in characterizing parasite genomic loci associated with antimalarial drug responses.

Plasmodium knowlesi - Clinical Isolate Genome Sequencing to Inform Translational Same-Species Model System for Severe Malaria

Malaria is responsible for unacceptably high morbidity and mortality, especially in Sub-Saharan African Nations. Malaria is caused by member species' of the genus Plasmodium and despite concerted and at times valiant efforts, the underlying pathophysiological processes leading to severe disease are poorly understood. Here we describe zoonotic malaria caused by Plasmodium knowlesi and the utility of this parasite as a model system for severe malaria. We present a method to generate long-read third-generation Plasmodium genome sequence data from archived clinical samples using the MinION platform. The method and technology are accessible, affordable and data is generated in real-time. We propose that by widely adopting this methodology important information on clinically relevant parasite diversity, including multiple gene family members, from geographically distinct study sites will emerge. Our goal, over time, is to exploit the duality of P. knowlesi as a well-used laboratory model and human pathogen to develop a representative translational model system for severe malaria that is informed by clinically relevant parasite diversity.

Viability and infectivity of Toxoplasma gondii tachyzoites exposed to Butanedione monoxime

The most important pathogenesis factor in the Apicomplexa parasites is invasion to the host cell. Given the inhibitory role of Butanedione Monoxime (BDM) on myosin-actin interaction, this study aimed to investigate the effects of this molecule on the vitality and infectivity of Toxoplasma tachyzoites in order to provide a new option for vaccine development. The tachyzoites of the RH strain of Toxoplasma gondii were exposed to different concentrations (1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, and 128 μg/mL) of BDM, and mortality effect was assessed by flow cytometry. Then, the penetration ability of the tachyzoites was investigated in HeLa and macrophage cell lines. The infectivity of exposed tachyzoites to BDM were also investigated in mice through following up and detecting the etiological factor. The highest percentage of mortality (72.69%) was seen in the tachyzoites exposed to 128 μg/mL of the compound. The tachyzoites exposed to 32, 64, and 128 μg/mL of BDM began the proliferation in HeLa cells after 48 h, while this proliferation was initiated within 24 h in macrophage cells. All the mice inoculated with the BDM-treated tachyzoites died after 13 days. The mean survival time of the mice receiving tachyzoites exposed to 128 μg/mL of BDM was 12.4 days, which was significantly different from the negative control group (p = 0.001). BDM, as the inhibitor of myosin-actin interaction, and other substances that block the entry of parasites into cells may be suitable candidates for vaccine production against Toxoplasma. Yet, future studies are required to be conducted on the issue.

Diversify and Conquer: The Vaccine Escapism of Plasmodium falciparum

Over the last century, a great deal of effort and resources have been poured into the development of vaccines to protect against malaria, particularly targeting the most widely spread and deadly species of the human-infecting parasites: Plasmodium falciparum. Many of the known proteins the parasite uses to invade human cells have been tested as vaccine candidates. However, precisely because of the importance and immune visibility of these proteins, they tend to be very diverse, and in many cases redundant, which limits their efficacy in vaccine development. With the advent of genomics and constantly improving sequencing technologies, an increasingly clear picture is emerging of the vast genomic diversity of parasites from different geographic areas. This diversity is distributed throughout the genome and includes most of the vaccine candidates tested so far, playing an important role in the low efficacy achieved. Genomics is a powerful tool to search for genes that comply with the most desirable attributes of vaccine targets, allowing us to evaluate function, immunogenicity and also diversity in the worldwide parasite populations. Even predicting how this diversity might evolve and spread in the future becomes possible, and can inform novel vaccine efforts.

Refining the transcriptome of the human malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum using amplification-free RNA-seq

Background

Plasmodium parasites undergo several major developmental transitions during their complex lifecycle, which are enabled by precisely ordered gene expression programs. Transcriptomes from the 48-h blood stages of the major human malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum have been described using cDNA microarrays and RNA-seq, but these assays have not always performed well within non-coding regions, where the AT-content is often 90–95%.

Results

We developed a directional, amplification-free RNA-seq protocol (DAFT-seq) to reduce bias against AT-rich cDNA, which we have applied to three strains of P. falciparum (3D7, HB3 and IT). While strain-specific differences were detected, overall there is strong conservation between the transcriptional profiles. For the 3D7 reference strain, transcription was detected from 89% of the genome, with over 78% of the genome transcribed into mRNAs. We also find that transcription from bidirectional promoters frequently results in non-coding, antisense transcripts. These datasets allowed us to refine the 5′ and 3′ untranslated regions (UTRs), which can be variable, long (> 1000 nt), and often overlap those of adjacent transcripts.

Conclusions

The approaches applied in this study allow a refined description of the transcriptional landscape of P. falciparum and demonstrate that very little of the densely packed P. falciparum genome is inactive or redundant. By capturing the 5′ and 3′ ends of mRNAs, we reveal both constant and dynamic use of transcriptional start sites across the intraerythrocytic developmental cycle that will be useful in guiding the definition of regulatory regions for use in future experimental gene expression studies.

Investigating a Plasmodium falciparum erythrocyte invasion phenotype switch at the whole transcriptome level

The central role that erythrocyte invasion plays in Plasmodium falciparum survival and reproduction makes this process an attractive target for therapeutic or vaccine development. However, multiple invasion-related genes with complementary and overlapping functions afford the parasite the plasticity to vary ligands used for invasion, leading to phenotypic variation and immune evasion. Overcoming the challenge posed by redundant ligands requires a deeper understanding of conditions that select for variant phenotypes and the molecular mediators. While host factors including receptor heterogeneity and acquired immune responses may drive parasite phenotypic variation, we have previously shown that host-independent changes in invasion phenotype can be achieved by continuous culturing of the W2mef and Dd2 P. falciparum strains in moving suspension as opposed to static conditions. Here, we have used a highly biologically replicated whole transcriptome sequencing approach to identify the molecular signatures of variation associated with the phenotype switch. The data show increased expression of particular invasion-related genes in switched parasites, as well as a large number of genes encoding proteins that are either exported or form part of the export machinery. The genes with most markedly increased expression included members of the erythrocyte binding antigens (EBA), reticulocyte binding homologues (RH), surface associated interspersed proteins (SURFIN), exported protein family 1 (EPF1) and Plasmodium Helical Interspersed Sub-Telomeric (PHIST) gene families. The data indicate changes in expression of a repertoire of genes not previously associated with erythrocyte invasion phenotypes, suggesting the possibility that moving suspension culture may also select for other traits.

Cutting back malaria: CRISPR/Cas9 genome editing of Plasmodium

CRISPR/Cas9 approaches are revolutionizing our ability to perform functional genomics across a wide range of organisms, including the Plasmodium parasites that cause malaria. The ability to deliver single point mutations, epitope tags and gene deletions at increased speed and scale is enabling our understanding of the biology of these complex parasites, and pointing to potential new therapeutic targets. In this review, we describe some of the biological and technical considerations for designing CRISPR-based experiments, and discuss potential future developments that broaden the applications for CRISPR/Cas9 interrogation of the malaria parasite genome.

An analysis of large structural variation in global Plasmodium falciparum isolates identifies a novel duplication of the chloroquine resistance associated gene

The evolution of genetic mechanisms for host immune evasion and anti-malarial resistance has enabled the Plasmodium falciparum malaria parasite to inflict high morbidity and mortality on human populations. Most studies of P. falciparum genetic diversity have focused on single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), assisting the identification of drug resistance-associated loci such as the chloroquine related crt and sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine related dhfr. Whilst larger structural variants are known to impact adaptation, for example, mdr1 duplications with anti-malarial resistance, no large-scale, genome-wide study on clinical isolates has been undertaken using whole genome sequencing data. By applying a structural variant detection pipeline across whole genome sequence data from 2,855 clinical isolates in 21 malaria-endemic countries, we identified >70,000 specific deletions and >600 duplications. Most structural variants are rare (48.5% of deletions and 94.7% of duplications are found in single isolates) with 2.4% of deletions and 0.2% of duplications found in >5% of global isolates. A subset of variants was present at high frequency in drug-resistance related genes including mdr1, the gch1 promoter region, and a putative novel duplication of crt. Regional-specific variants were identified, and a companion visualisation tool has been developed to assist web-based investigation of these polymorphisms by the wider scientific community.