1
|
Ingram Z, Kline C, Hughson AK, Singh PK, Fischer HL, Radhakrishnan R, Sowd GA, Dos Santos NFB, Ganser-Pornillos BK, Watkins SC, Kane M, Engelman AN, Ambrose Z. Spatiotemporal binding of cyclophilin A and CPSF6 to capsid regulates HIV-1 nuclear entry and integration. mBio 2025; 16:e0016925. [PMID: 40013779 PMCID: PMC11980554 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.00169-25] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2025] [Accepted: 01/30/2025] [Indexed: 02/28/2025] Open
Abstract
Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) capsid, which is the target of the antiviral lenacapavir, protects the viral genome and binds multiple host proteins to influence intracellular trafficking, nuclear import, and integration. Previously, we showed that capsid binding to cleavage and polyadenylation specificity factor 6 (CPSF6) in the cytoplasm is competitively inhibited by cyclophilin A (CypA) binding and regulates capsid trafficking, nuclear import, and infection. Here, we determined that a capsid mutant with increased CypA binding affinity had significantly reduced nuclear entry and mislocalized integration. However, disruption of CypA binding to the mutant capsid restored nuclear entry, integration, and infection in a CPSF6-dependent manner. Furthermore, relocalization of CypA expression from the cell cytoplasm to the nucleus failed to restore mutant HIV-1 infection. Our results clarify that sequential binding of CypA and CPSF6 to HIV-1 capsid is required for optimal nuclear entry and integration targeting, providing insights for the development of antiretroviral therapies, such as lenacapavir. IMPORTANCE Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) encodes a protein that forms a conical shell, called a capsid, that surrounds its genome. The capsid has been shown to protect the viral genome from innate immune sensors in the cell, to help transport the genome toward and into the nucleus, to keep the components of reverse transcription together for conversion of the RNA genome into DNA, and to target viral DNA integration into specific regions of the host genome. In this study, we show that HIV hijacks two host proteins to bind to capsid sequentially in order to choreograph the precise order and timing of these virus replication steps. Disruption of binding of these proteins to capsid or their location in the cell leads to defective HIV nuclear import, integration, and infection. Mutations that exist in the capsid protein of HIV in infected individuals may reduce the efficacy of antiretroviral drugs that target capsid.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Zachary Ingram
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, Division of Infectious Diseases, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
- Pittsburgh Center for HIV Protein Interactions, Division of Infectious Diseases, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Christopher Kline
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, Division of Infectious Diseases, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
- Pittsburgh Center for HIV Protein Interactions, Division of Infectious Diseases, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Alexandra K. Hughson
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, Division of Infectious Diseases, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
- Pittsburgh Center for HIV Protein Interactions, Division of Infectious Diseases, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology, University of Pittsburgh School of Public Health, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Parmit K. Singh
- Pittsburgh Center for HIV Protein Interactions, Division of Infectious Diseases, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
- Department of Cancer Immunology and Virology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Department of Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Hannah L. Fischer
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, Division of Infectious Diseases, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
- Pittsburgh Center for HIV Protein Interactions, Division of Infectious Diseases, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Rajalingham Radhakrishnan
- Department of Cancer Immunology and Virology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Gregory A. Sowd
- Pittsburgh Center for HIV Protein Interactions, Division of Infectious Diseases, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
- Department of Cancer Immunology and Virology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Department of Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Nayara F. B. Dos Santos
- Pittsburgh Center for HIV Protein Interactions, Division of Infectious Diseases, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah, USA
| | - Barbie K. Ganser-Pornillos
- Pittsburgh Center for HIV Protein Interactions, Division of Infectious Diseases, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah, USA
| | - Simon C. Watkins
- Pittsburgh Center for HIV Protein Interactions, Division of Infectious Diseases, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Melissa Kane
- Pittsburgh Center for HIV Protein Interactions, Division of Infectious Diseases, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Infectious Diseases, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Alan N. Engelman
- Pittsburgh Center for HIV Protein Interactions, Division of Infectious Diseases, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
- Department of Cancer Immunology and Virology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Department of Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Zandrea Ambrose
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, Division of Infectious Diseases, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
- Pittsburgh Center for HIV Protein Interactions, Division of Infectious Diseases, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology, University of Pittsburgh School of Public Health, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Xie A, Qian W, Ye D, Deng X, Ma Y, Wang R, Zhou Q, Bao Z, Yu R. Sodium propionate protects against bronchopulmonary dysplasia by inhibiting IL-17-mediated apoptosis of alveolar epithelial cells. Sci Rep 2025; 15:11722. [PMID: 40188136 PMCID: PMC11972331 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-025-94794-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2024] [Accepted: 03/17/2025] [Indexed: 04/07/2025] Open
Abstract
Sodium propionate (SP) has been shown to enhance alveolar growth retardation in Bronchopulmonary Dysplasia (BPD), but the mechanism remains unclear. The aim of this study is to explore the potential mechanism of SP in the treatment of BPD by utilizing animal and cell models along with bioinformation analysis. Neonatal mice were exposed to either air (21% O2) or hyperoxia (85% O2) from the first day after birth to establish the BPD model. The neonatal mice were intraperitoneally injected with normal saline (control group) or SP (500 mg/kg, SP group) from day 8 to day 14. SP significantly reduced the inflammatory condition of alveolar septal thickening, and decreased the alveolar fusion and mitigated weight loss in BPD mice. ELISA results demonstrated that SP significantly inhibited the secretion of IL-17, IL-6 and TNFα. Transcriptome analysis confirmed that IL-17 signaling pathway is closely related to the therapeutic effects of SP on BPD. In addition, MX2, MMP10, IL-11, ZMAT4 and SEC1 genes were identified as key and potential targets involved in the mechanism of SP treating BPD. Meanwhile, in mouse alveolar epithelial cells, apoptosis was induced by hyperoxia, but it was reduced following SP intervention. The expression of IL-17 pathway related genes: IL-17A, IL-6, TNFα and cox2 was decreased in hyperoxia treated cells after SP intervention. In conclusion, through transcriptome analysis, animal and cell experiments, we explored the role of sodium propionate in attenuating apoptosis in a BPD model through IL-17 pathway.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anni Xie
- Department of Neonatology, Affiliated Women's Hospital of Jiangnan University, Wuxi Maternity and Child Health Care Hospital, Wuxi, 214002, China
| | - Weilin Qian
- Department of Neonatology, Affiliated Women's Hospital of Jiangnan University, Wuxi Maternity and Child Health Care Hospital, Wuxi, 214002, China
| | - Danni Ye
- Department of Neonatology, Affiliated Women's Hospital of Jiangnan University, Wuxi Maternity and Child Health Care Hospital, Wuxi, 214002, China
| | - Xianhui Deng
- Department of Neonatology, Jiangyin People's Hospital of Nantong University, Jiangyin, 214400, China
| | - Yizhe Ma
- Department of Neonatology, Jiangyin People's Hospital of Nantong University, Jiangyin, 214400, China
| | - Ran Wang
- Department of Neonatology, Affiliated Women's Hospital of Jiangnan University, Wuxi Maternity and Child Health Care Hospital, Wuxi, 214002, China
| | - Qin Zhou
- Department of Pediatric, Wuxi Yihe Gynaecology and Obstetrics Hospital, Wuxi, 214124, China.
| | - Zhidan Bao
- Department of Neonatology, Jiangyin People's Hospital of Nantong University, Jiangyin, 214400, China.
| | - Renqiang Yu
- Department of Neonatology, Affiliated Women's Hospital of Jiangnan University, Wuxi Maternity and Child Health Care Hospital, Wuxi, 214002, China.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Flick H, Venbakkam A, Singh PK, Layish B, Huang SW, Radhakrishnan R, Kvaratskhelia M, Engelman AN, Kane M. Interplay between the cyclophilin homology domain of RANBP2 and MX2 regulates HIV-1 capsid dependencies on nucleoporins. mBio 2025; 16:e0264624. [PMID: 39853118 PMCID: PMC11898759 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.02646-24] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2024] [Accepted: 12/17/2024] [Indexed: 01/26/2025] Open
Abstract
Interlinked interactions between the viral capsid (CA), nucleoporins (Nups), and the antiviral protein myxovirus resistance 2 (MX2/MXB) influence human immunodeficiency virus 1 (HIV-1) nuclear entry and the outcome of infection. Although RANBP2/NUP358 has been repeatedly identified as a critical player in HIV-1 nuclear import and MX2 activity, the mechanism by which RANBP2 facilitates HIV-1 infection is not well understood. To explore the interactions between MX2, the viral CA, and RANBP2, we utilized CRISPR-Cas9 to generate cell lines expressing RANBP2 from its endogenous locus but lacking the C-terminal cyclophilin (Cyp) homology domain and found that both HIV-1 and HIV-2 infections were reduced significantly in RANBP2ΔCyp cells. Importantly, although MX2 still localized to the nuclear pore complex in RANBP2ΔCyp cells, antiviral activity against HIV-1 was decreased. By generating cells expressing specific point mutations in the RANBP2-Cyp domain, we determined that the effect of the RANBP2-Cyp domain on MX2 anti-HIV-1 activity is due to direct interactions between RANBP2 and CA. We further determined that CypA and RANBP2-Cyp have similar effects on HIV-1 integration targeting. Finally, we found that the Nup requirements for HIV infection and MX2 activity were altered in cells lacking the RANBP2-Cyp domain. These findings demonstrate that the RANBP2-Cyp domain affects viral infection and MX2 sensitivity by altering CA-specific interactions with cellular factors that affect nuclear import and integration targeting. IMPORTANCE Human immunodeficiency virus 1 (HIV-1) entry into the nucleus is an essential step in viral replication that involves complex interactions between the viral capsid (CA) and multiple cellular proteins, including nucleoporins (Nups) such as RANBP2. Nups also mediate the function of the antiviral protein myxovirus resistance 2 (MX2); however, determining the precise role of Nups in HIV infection has proved challenging due to the complex nature of the nuclear pore complex (NPC) and significant pleiotropic effects elicited by Nup depletion. We have used precise gene editing to assess the role of the cyclophilin domain of RANBP2 in HIV-1 infection and MX2 activity. We find that this domain affects viral infection, nucleoporin requirements, MX2 sensitivity, and integration targeting in a CA-specific manner, providing detailed insights into how RANBP2 contributes to HIV-1 infection.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Haley Flick
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Infectious Diseases, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Ananya Venbakkam
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Infectious Diseases, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
- Pittsburgh Center for HIV Protein Interactions, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Parmit K. Singh
- Department of Cancer Immunology and Virology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Department of Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Bailey Layish
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Infectious Diseases, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Szu-Wei Huang
- Division of Infectious Diseases, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado, USA
| | - Rajalingam Radhakrishnan
- Department of Cancer Immunology and Virology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Mamuka Kvaratskhelia
- Division of Infectious Diseases, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado, USA
| | - Alan N. Engelman
- Pittsburgh Center for HIV Protein Interactions, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
- Department of Cancer Immunology and Virology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Department of Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Melissa Kane
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Infectious Diseases, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
- Pittsburgh Center for HIV Protein Interactions, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Cook M, Freniere C, Wu C, Lozano F, Xiong Y. Structural insights into HIV-2 CA lattice formation and FG-pocket binding revealed by single-particle cryo-EM. Cell Rep 2025; 44:115245. [PMID: 39864060 PMCID: PMC11912512 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2025.115245] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2024] [Revised: 11/20/2024] [Accepted: 01/09/2025] [Indexed: 01/28/2025] Open
Abstract
One of the striking features of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is the capsid, a fullerene cone comprised of pleomorphic capsid protein (CA) that shields the viral genome and recruits cofactors. Despite significant advances in understanding the mechanisms of HIV-1 CA assembly and host factor interactions, HIV-2 CA assembly remains poorly understood. By templating the assembly of HIV-2 CA on functionalized liposomes, we report high-resolution structures of the HIV-2 CA lattice, including both CA hexamers and pentamers, alone and with peptides of host phenylalanine-glycine (FG)-motif proteins Nup153 and CPSF6. While the overall fold and mode of FG-peptide binding is conserved with HIV-1, this study reveals distinctive features of the HIV-2 CA lattice, including differing structural character at regions of host factor interactions and divergence in the mechanism of formation of CA hexamers and pentamers. This study extends our understanding of HIV capsids and highlights an approach facilitating the study of lentiviral capsid biology.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Matthew Cook
- Department of Molecular Biophysics and Biochemistry, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Christian Freniere
- Department of Molecular Biophysics and Biochemistry, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Chunxiang Wu
- Department of Molecular Biophysics and Biochemistry, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Faith Lozano
- Department of Molecular Biophysics and Biochemistry, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Yong Xiong
- Department of Molecular Biophysics and Biochemistry, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Wang T, Becker D, Twizerimana AP, Luedde T, Gohlke H, Münk C. Cyclophilin A Regulates Tripartite Motif 5 Alpha Restriction of HIV-1. Int J Mol Sci 2025; 26:495. [PMID: 39859212 PMCID: PMC11764967 DOI: 10.3390/ijms26020495] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2024] [Revised: 01/03/2025] [Accepted: 01/06/2025] [Indexed: 01/27/2025] Open
Abstract
The peptidyl-prolyl isomerase A (PPIA), also known as cyclophilin A (CYPA), is involved in multiple steps of the HIV-1 replication cycle. CYPA regulates the restriction of many host factors by interacting with the CYPA-binding loop on the HIV-1 capsid (CA) surface. TRIM5 (tripartite motif protein 5) in primates is a key species-specific restriction factor defining the HIV-1 pandemic. The incomplete adaptation of HIV-1 to humans is due to the different utilization of CYPA by pandemic and non-pandemic HIV-1. The enzymatic activity of CYPA on the viral core is likely an important reason for regulating the TRIM5 restriction activity. Thus, the HIV-1 capsid and its CYPA interaction may serve as new targets for future anti-AIDS therapeutic agents. This article will describe the species-specificity of the restriction factor TRIM5, understand the role of CYPA in regulating restriction factors in retroviral infection, and discuss important future research issues.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tingting Wang
- Clinic of Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Infectious Diseases, Medical Faculty, Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany; (T.W.); (A.P.T.); (T.L.)
| | - Daniel Becker
- Institute for Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany;
| | - Augustin Penda Twizerimana
- Clinic of Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Infectious Diseases, Medical Faculty, Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany; (T.W.); (A.P.T.); (T.L.)
| | - Tom Luedde
- Clinic of Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Infectious Diseases, Medical Faculty, Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany; (T.W.); (A.P.T.); (T.L.)
| | - Holger Gohlke
- Institute for Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany;
- Institute of Bio- and Geosciences (IBG-4: Bioinformatics), Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH, 52425 Jülich, Germany
| | - Carsten Münk
- Clinic of Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Infectious Diseases, Medical Faculty, Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany; (T.W.); (A.P.T.); (T.L.)
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Ingram Z, Kline C, Hughson AK, Singh PK, Fischer HL, Sowd GA, Watkins SC, Kane M, Engelman AN, Ambrose Z. Spatiotemporal binding of cyclophilin A and CPSF6 to capsid regulates HIV-1 nuclear entry and integration. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.04.08.588584. [PMID: 38645162 PMCID: PMC11030324 DOI: 10.1101/2024.04.08.588584] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/23/2024]
Abstract
Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) capsid, which is the target of the antiviral lenacapavir, protects the viral genome and binds multiple host proteins to influence intracellular trafficking, nuclear import, and integration. Previously, we showed that capsid binding to cleavage and polyadenylation specificity factor 6 (CPSF6) in the cytoplasm is competitively inhibited by cyclophilin A (CypA) binding and regulates capsid trafficking, nuclear import, and infection. Here we determined that a capsid mutant with increased CypA binding affinity had significantly reduced nuclear entry and mislocalized integration. However, disruption of CypA binding to the mutant capsid restored nuclear entry, integration, and infection in a CPSF6-dependent manner. Furthermore, relocalization of CypA expression from the cell cytoplasm to the nucleus failed to restore mutant HIV-1 infection. Our results clarify that sequential binding of CypA and CPSF6 to HIV-1 capsid is required for optimal nuclear entry and integration targeting, informing antiretroviral therapies that contain lenacapavir.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Zachary Ingram
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA
- Pittsburgh Center for HIV Protein Interactions, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA
| | - Christopher Kline
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA
- Pittsburgh Center for HIV Protein Interactions, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA
| | - Alexandra K. Hughson
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA
- Pittsburgh Center for HIV Protein Interactions, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology, University of Pittsburgh School of Public Health, Pittsburgh, PA
| | - Parmit K. Singh
- Pittsburgh Center for HIV Protein Interactions, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA
- Department of Cancer Immunology and Virology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA
- Department of Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA
| | - Hannah L. Fischer
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA
- Pittsburgh Center for HIV Protein Interactions, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA
| | - Gregory A. Sowd
- Pittsburgh Center for HIV Protein Interactions, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA
- Department of Cancer Immunology and Virology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA
- Department of Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA
| | - Simon C. Watkins
- Pittsburgh Center for HIV Protein Interactions, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA
| | - Melissa Kane
- Pittsburgh Center for HIV Protein Interactions, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Infectious Diseases, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA
| | - Alan N. Engelman
- Pittsburgh Center for HIV Protein Interactions, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA
- Department of Cancer Immunology and Virology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA
- Department of Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA
| | - Zandrea Ambrose
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA
- Pittsburgh Center for HIV Protein Interactions, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology, University of Pittsburgh School of Public Health, Pittsburgh, PA
| |
Collapse
|