Emergency department cardiopulmonary bypass in the treatment of human cardiac arrest

Reliability of prognostic biomarkers after prehospital extracorporeal cardiopulmonary resuscitation with target temperature management

Background

Extracorporeal cardiopulmonary resuscitation (ECPR) performed at the emergency scene in out-of-hospital cardiac arrest (OHCA) can minimize low-flow time. Target temperature management (TTM) after cardiac arrest can improve neurological outcome. A combination of ECPR and TTM, both implemented as soon as possible on scene, appears to have promising results in OHCA. To date, it is still unknown whether the implementation of TTM and ECPR on scene affects the time course and value of neurological biomarkers.

Methods

69 ECPR patients were examined in this study. Blood samples were collected between 1 and 72 h after ECPR and analyzed for S100, neuron-specific enolase (NSE), lactate, D-dimers and interleukin 6 (IL6). Cerebral performance category (CPC) scores were used to assess neurological outcome after ECPR upon hospital discharge. Resuscitation data were extracted from the Regensburg extracorporeal membrane oxygenation database and all data were analyzed by a statistician. The data were analyzed using non-parametric methods. Diagnostic accuracy of biomarkers was determined by area under the curve (AUC) analysis. Results were compared to the relevant literature.

Results

Non-hypoxic origin of cardiac arrest, manual chest compression until ECPR, a short low-flow time until ECPR initiation, low body mass index (BMI) and only a minimal need of extra-corporeal membrane oxygenation support were associated with a good neurological outcome after ECPR. Survivors with good neurological outcome had significantly lower lactate, IL6, D-dimer, and NSE values and demonstrated a rapid decrease in the initial S100 value compared to non-survivors.

Conclusions

A short low-flow time until ECPR initiation is important for a good neurological outcome. Hypoxia-induced cardiac arrest has a high mortality rate even when ECPR and TTM are performed at the emergency scene. ECPR patients with a higher BMI had a worse neurological outcome than patients with a normal BMI. The prognostic biomarkers S100, NSE, lactate, D-dimers and IL6 were reliable indicators of neurological outcome when ECPR and TTM were performed at the emergency scene.

Modalities of Left Ventricle Decompression during VA-ECMO Therapy

Veno-arterial extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (VA-ECMO) is used to sustain circulatory and respiratory support in patients with severe cardiogenic shock or refractory cardiac arrest. Although VA-ECMO allows adequate perfusion of end-organs, it may have detrimental effects on myocardial recovery. Hemodynamic consequences on the left ventricle, such as the increase of afterload, end-diastolic pressure and volume, can lead to left ventricular (LV) distention, increase of myocardial oxygen consumption and delayed LV function recovery. LV distention occurs in almost 50% of patients supported with VA-ECMO and is associated with an increase in morbidity and mortality. Thus, recognizing, preventing and treating LV distention is key in the management of these patients. In this review, we aim to discuss the pathophysiology of LV distention and to describe the strategies to unload the LV in patients supported with VA-ECMO.

Critical Care Delivery Solutions in the Emergency Department: Evolving Models in Caring for ICU Boarders

The National Academy of Medicine has identified emergency department (ED) crowding as a health care delivery problem. Because the ED is a portal of entry to the hospital, 25% of all ED encounters are related to critical illness. Crowding at both an ED and hospital level can thus lead to boarding of a number of critically ill patients in the ED. EDs are required to not only deliver immediate resuscitative and stabilizing care to critically ill patients on presentation but also provide longitudinal care while boarding for the ICU. Crowding and boarding are multifactorial and complex issues, for which different models for delivery of critical care in the ED have been described. Herein, we provide a narrative review of different models of delivery of critical care reported in the literature and highlight aspects for consideration for successful local implementation.

Extracorporeal Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation for Out-of-Hospital Cardiac Arrest in Adult Patients

Extracorporeal cardiopulmonary resuscitation (ECPR) followed by targeted temperature management has been demonstrated to significantly improve the outcomes of out-of-hospital cardiac arrest (OHCA) in adult patients. Although recent narrative and systematic reviews on extracorporeal life support in the emergency department are available in the literature, they are focused on the efficacy of ECPR, and no comprehensively summarized review on ECPR for OHCA in adult patients is available. In this review, we aimed to clarify the prevalence, pathophysiology, predictors, management, and details of the complications of ECPR for OHCA, all of which have not been reviewed in previous literature, with the aim of facilitating understanding among acute care physicians. The leading countries in the field of ECPR are those in East Asia followed by those in Europe and the United States. ECPR may reduce the risks of reperfusion injury and deterioration to secondary brain injury. Unlike conventional cardiopulmonary resuscitation, however, no clear prognostic markers have been identified for ECPR for OHCA. Bleeding was identified as the most common complication of ECPR in patients with OHCA. Future studies should combine ECPR with intra-aortic balloon pump, extracorporeal membrane oxygenation flow, target blood pressure, and seizure management in ECPR.

On pump harvesting of Left Internal Mammary Artery (LIMA) in unstable patients undergoing coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG) is a safe operative strategy: A pilot study

Objective:

To evaluate the clinical safety of left internal mammary artery (LIMA) harvesting in hemodynamically unstable patients after establishing cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB) in isolated coronary artery bypass graft (CABG) surgery.

Methods:

The prospective observational study was conducted at Chaudhry Pervaiz Elahi Institute of Cardiology, Multan, Pakistan, from December 2016 to August 2018. All patients undergoing isolated CABG surgery in which LIMA conduit was harvested after establishing cardiopulmonary bypass because of hemodynamic instability at induction of anaesthesia or during surgery were included in the study. Preoperative, operative and postoperative characteristics of the patients were recorded. Data was analyzed using SPSS 19.

Results:

In Forty nine patients including 39 male and 10 female, early CPB had to be established because of hemodynamic instability and afterwards LIMA was harvested. Out of 49, 30 patients presented with CCS class III angina. 37 (75.5%) patients were scheduled on elective coronary surgery waiting list. There were 39 (79.59%) patients who weaned off bypass on mild inotropic support and 4 (8.16%) patients needed IABP support. All patients had multi-vessel coronary artery disease. Mean number of grafts were 3.428±0.577, CPB time was 110.59±25.594 and hospital stay was 5.367±1.424.

Conclusions:

The study showed that LIMA can be safely harvested in unstable patients after establishing extracorporeal circulation and by using this operative strategy in patients who need urgent or emergent surgical coronary revascularization LIMA can be safely used as a conduit.

Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation support in pediatrics

Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) is a general term that describes the short- or long-term support of the heart and/or lungs in neonates, children and adults. Due to favorable results and a steady decline in absolute contraindications, its use is increasing worldwide. Indications in children differ from those in adults. The ECMO circuit as well as cannulation strategies also are individualized, considering their implications in children. The aim of this article is to review the clinical indications, different circuits, and cannulation strategies for ECMO. We also present our institutional experience with 92 pediatric ECMO patients (34 neonates, 58 pediatric) with the majority (80%) of veno-arterial placements between 2014 until 2018. We further to also highlight ECMO use in the setting of cardiac arrest [extracorporeal cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) or eCPR].

A Pre-Hospital Extracorporeal Cardio Pulmonary Resuscitation (ECPR) strategy for treatment of refractory out hospital cardiac arrest: An observational study and propensity analysis

BACKGROUND

Out of hospital cardiac arrest (OHCA) mortality rates remain very high with poor neurological outcome in survivors. Extracorporeal cardiopulmonary resuscitation (ECPR) is one of the treatments of refractory OHCA. This study used data from the mobile intensive care unit (MOICU) as part of the emergency medical system of Paris, and included all consecutive patients treated with ECPR (including pre-hospital ECPR) from 2011 to 2015 for the treatment of refractory OHCA, comparing two historical ECPR management strategies.

METHODS

We consecutively included refractory OHCA patients. In Period 1, ECPR was indicated in selected patients after 30min of advanced life support; in- or pre-hospital implementation depended on estimated transportation time and ECPR team availability. In Period 2, patient care relied on early ECPR initiation after 20min of resuscitation, stringent patient selection, epinephrine dose limitation and deployment of ECPR team with initial response team. Primary outcome was survival with good neurological function Cerebral Performance Category score (CPC score) 1 and 2 at ICU discharge or day 28.

FINDINGS

A total of 156 patients were included. (114 in Period 1 and 42 in Period 2). Baseline characteristics were similar. Mean low-flow duration was shorter by 20min (p<0.001) in Period 2. Survival was significantly higher in Period 2: 29% vs 8% (P<0.001), as confirmed by the multivariate analysis and propensity score. When combining stringent patient selection with an aggressive strategy, the survival rate increased to 38%. Pre-hospital ECPR implementation in itself was not an independent predictor of improved survival, but it was part of the strategy in Period 2.

INTERPRETATION

Our data suggest that ECPR in specific settings in the management of refractory OHCA is feasible and can lead to a significant increase in neurological intact survivors. These data, however, need to be confirmed by a large RCT.

Extracorporeal Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation: Predictors of Survival

Background

The use of extracorporeal life support (ECLS) in the setting of cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) has shown improved outcomes compared with conventional CPR. The aim of this study was to determine factors predictive of survival in extracorporeal CPR (E-CPR).

Methods

Consecutive 85 adult patients (median age, 59 years; range, 18 to 85 years; 56 males) who underwent E-CPR from May 2005 to December 2012 were evaluated.

Results

Causes of arrest were cardiogenic in 62 patients (72.9%), septic in 18 patients (21.2%), and hypovolemic in 3 patients (3.5%), while the etiology was not specified in 2 patients (2.4%). The survival rate in patients with septic etiology was significantly poorer compared with those with another etiology (0% vs. 24.6%, p=0.008). Septic etiology (hazard ratio [HR], 2.84; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.49 to 5.44; p=0.002) and the interval between arrest and ECLS initiation (HR, 1.05 by 10 minutes increment; 95% CI, 1.02 to 1.09; p=0.005) were independent risk factors for mortality. When the predictive value of the E-CPR timing for in-hospital mortality was assessed using the receiver operating characteristic curve method, the greatest accuracy was obtained at a cutoff of 60.5 minutes (area under the curve, 0.67; 95% CI, 0.54 to 0.80; p=0.032) with 47.8% sensitivity and 88.9% specificity. The survival rate was significantly different according to the cutoff of 60.5 minutes (p=0.001).

Conclusion

These results indicate that efforts should be made to minimize the time between arrest and ECLS application, optimally within 60 minutes. In addition, E-CPR in patients with septic etiology showed grave outcomes, suggesting it to be of questionable benefit in these patients.

Cardiac arrest: resuscitation and reperfusion

The modern treatment of cardiac arrest is an increasingly complex medical procedure with a rapidly changing array of therapeutic approaches designed to restore life to victims of sudden death. The 2 primary goals of providing artificial circulation and defibrillation to halt ventricular fibrillation remain of paramount importance for saving lives. They have undergone significant improvements in technology and dissemination into the community subsequent to their establishment 60 years ago. The evolution of artificial circulation includes efforts to optimize manual cardiopulmonary resuscitation, external mechanical cardiopulmonary resuscitation devices designed to augment circulation, and may soon advance further into the rapid deployment of specially designed internal emergency cardiopulmonary bypass devices. The development of defibrillation technologies has progressed from bulky internal defibrillators paddles applied directly to the heart, to manually controlled external defibrillators, to automatic external defibrillators that can now be obtained over-the-counter for widespread use in the community or home. But the modern treatment of cardiac arrest now involves more than merely providing circulation and defibrillation. As suggested by a 3-phase model of treatment, newer approaches targeting patients who have had a more prolonged cardiac arrest include treatment of the metabolic phase of cardiac arrest with therapeutic hypothermia, agents to treat or prevent reperfusion injury, new strategies specifically focused on pulseless electric activity, which is the presenting rhythm in at least one third of cardiac arrests, and aggressive post resuscitation care. There are discoveries at the cellular and molecular level about ischemia and reperfusion pathobiology that may be translated into future new therapies. On the near horizon is the combination of advanced cardiopulmonary bypass plus a cocktail of multiple agents targeted at restoration of normal metabolism and prevention of reperfusion injury, as this holds the promise of restoring life to many patients for whom our current therapies fail.

Extracorporeal cardiopulmonary resuscitation

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

To discuss the role of extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) in patients with cardiac arrest.

RECENT FINDINGS

Return to spontaneous circulation dramatically decreases with the duration of cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR). In this context, it has been proposed to implement venoarterial ECMO in order to assist CPR (ECPR) both in inhospital cardiac arrest (IHCA) and in out-of-hospital cardiac arrest (OHCA).

SUMMARY

This review highlights that ECPR is feasible for both IHCA and OHCA. In the recent series, the outcome of ECPR in IHCA is satisfactory, with survival rates good with neurologic outcome reaching the 40-50% range. All series converge in highlighting that time from cardiac arrest to ECMO flow is a critical determinant of outcome, with survival rates of 50% when initiated within 30 min of IHCA, 30% between 30 and 60 min, and 18% after 60 min. Results of ECPR in OHCA are more challenging. Recent series suggest that good outcome can be obtained in 15-20% of the patients, provided that time from arrest to ECMO is shorter than 60 min. Duration of cardiac arrest seems to be more important than location of cardiac arrest. ECPR thus seems to be a valuable option in selected cases.

Extracorporeal life support as rescue strategy for out-of-hospital and emergency department cardiac arrest

BACKGROUND

Extracorporeal life support (ECLS) has been utilized as a rescue strategy for patients with cardiac arrest unresponsive to conventional cardiopulmonary resuscitation.

OBJECTIVE

We sought to describe our institution's experience with implementation of ECLS for out-of-hospital and emergency department (ED) cardiac arrests. Our primary outcome was survival to hospital discharge.

METHODS

Consecutive patients placed on ECLS in the ED or within one hour of admission after out-of-hospital or ED cardiac arrest were enrolled at two urban academic medical centers in the United States from July 2007-April 2014.

RESULTS

During the study period, 26 patients were included. Average age was 40±15 years, 54% were male, and 42% were white. Initial cardiac rhythms were ventricular fibrillation or pulseless ventricular tachycardia in 42%. The average time from initial cardiac arrest to initiation of ECLS was 77 ± 51 min (range 12-180 min). ECLS cannulation was unsuccessful in two patients. Eighteen (69%) had complications related to ECLS, most commonly bleeding and ischemic events. Four patients (15%) survived to discharge, three of whom were neurologically intact at 6 months.

CONCLUSION

ECLS shows promise as a rescue strategy for refractory out-of-hospital or ED cardiac arrest but is not without challenges. Further investigations are necessary to refine the technique, patient selection, and ancillary therapeutics.

Full neurologic recovery and return of spontaneous circulation following prolonged cardiac arrest facilitated by percutaneous left ventricular assist device

Sudden cardiac arrest is associated with high early mortality, which is largely related to postcardiac arrest syndrome characterized by an acute but often transient decrease in left ventricular (LV) function. The stunned LV provides poor cardiac output, which compounds the initial global insult from hypoperfusion. If employed early, an LV assist device (LVAD) may improve survival and neurologic outcome; however, traditional methods of augmenting LV function have significant drawbacks, limiting their usefulness in the periarrest period. Full cardiac support with cardiopulmonary bypass is not always readily available but is increasingly being studied as a tool to intensify resuscitation. There have been no controlled trials studying the early use of percutaneous LVADs (pLVADs) in pericardiac arrest patients or intra-arrest as a bridge to return of spontaneous circulation. This article presents a case study and discussion of a patient who arrested while undergoing an elective coronary angioplasty and suffered prolonged cardiopulmonary resuscitation. During resuscitation, treatment included placement of a pLVAD and initiation of therapeutic hypothermia. The patient made a rapid and full recovery.

Hypothermic or normothermic abdominal regional perfusion in high-risk donors with extended warm ischemia times: impact on outcomes?

Donation after circulatory determination of death (DCD) has the potential to increase the applicability of transplantation as a treatment for end-stage organ disease; its use is limited, however, by the warm ischemic damage suffered by potential grafts. Abdominal regional perfusion (ARP) has been employed in this setting to not only curtail the deleterious effects of cardiac arrest by re-establishing oxygenated flow but also test and even improve the viability of the kidneys and liver prior to transplantation. In the present review article, we discuss experimental and clinical studies that have been published to date on the use of ARP in DCD, differentiating between its application under hypothermic and normothermic conditions. In addition to describing results that have been achieved thus far, we describe the major obstacles limiting the broader implementation of ARP in this context as well as potential means for improving the effectiveness of this modality in the future.

A review of emergency cardiopulmonary bypass for severe poisoning by cardiotoxic drugs

Cardiovascular collapse remains a leading cause of death in severe acute drug intoxication. Commonly prescribed medications such as antidysrhythmics, calcium channel antagonists, and beta adrenergic receptor antagonists can cause refractory cardiovascular collapse in massive overdose. Emergency cardiopulmonary bypass (ECPB), a modality originating in cardiac surgery, is a rescue technique that has been successfully implemented in the treatment of refractory cardiogenic shock and cardiac arrest unresponsive to traditional medical interventions. More recently a growing number of animal studies, case reports, and case series have documented its use in refractory hemodynamic collapse in poisoned patients. This article will review current ECPB techniques and explore its growing role in the treatment of severely hemodynamically compromised poisoned patients.

Might rapid implementation of cardiopulmonary bypass in patients who are failing to recover after a cardiac arrest potentially save lives?

The question addressed was whether it might be beneficial to have a rapid-response emergency cardiopulmonary bypass service for patients who suffer an in-hospital or an out-of-hospital cardiac arrest of any aetiology. Eighty-five papers were reviewed using the reported search, of which 15 represented the best evidence to answer the clinical question. The authors, journal, date, country of publication, patient group studied, study type, relevant outcomes and results of these papers are tabulated. The concept of using emergency cardiopulmonary bypass (ECPB) for the management of cardiogenic shock and refractory cardiac arrest was developed in the late 1990s. Since this time, a large number of centres worldwide have reported success with use of ECPB for cardiac arrest refractory to conventional resuscitation techniques and for cardiogenic shock. This is a relatively new advancement in resuscitative strategy and is expanding in clinical practice. Clinical studies and experimental data reveal that ECPB is a very effective tool in the return of spontaneous circulation following refractory cardiac arrest. Resuscitation with this technique demonstrated survival benefit when compared with patients having conventional cardiopulmonary resuscitation for >10 min after witnessed in-hospital arrest, especially if the cause of arrest is of cardiac origin. The reported finding from a systematic review of 1494 patients treated with ECPB noted that the overall survival rate was 47.4%; their results indicate that the application of ECPB in cardiac arrest improves survival and the likelihood of a satisfactory neurological outcome. An additional review revealed that acceptable survival rate and neurological outcomes (30%) can be achieved with extracorporeal cardiopulmonary resuscitation in children after prolonged cardiac arrest (up to 95 min) refractory to standard resuscitation. However, no study has provided clear-cut evidence of the merits of ECPS in patients with out-of-hospital cardiac arrest, although many case reports and case series have concluded that it is an effective method. We conclude that institution of emergency cardiopulmonary bypass may save the lives of patients in whom routine attempts at resuscitation after a cardiac arrest fail, especially after >10 min. The likelihood of success is much higher for patients who have in-hospital witnessed cardiac arrest.

Percutaneous Assist Device for Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation

Persistent cardiac arrest is often caused by coronary ischemia. Urgent revascularization during on-going resuscitation with the support of percutaneous left ventricular assist devices (PVAD) may be feasible and can have the potential to improve the prognosis. Transport during resuscitation is a challenge that may be overcome with the use of cardiopulmonary resuscitation devices. In the catheterization laboratory, rapid deployment of PVAD may reduce ischemia, contribute to electrical stabilization of the heart, and facilitate definite treatment with percutaneous coronary intervention. After revascularization, PVAD therapy may promote myocardial recovery and improve vital organ perfusion in a critical phase.

Year in review 2011: Critical Care--Out-of-hospital cardiac arrest and trauma

In 2011, numerous studies were published in Critical Care focusing on out-of-hospital cardiac arrest, cardiopulmonary resuscitation, trauma, and some related airway, respiratory, and response time factors. In this review, we summarize several of these studies, including those that brought forth advances in therapies for the post-resuscitative period. These advances involved hypothesis-generating concepts in therapeutic hypothermia as well as the impact of early percutaneous coronary artery interventions and the potential utility of extracorporeal life support after cardiac arrest. There were also articles pertaining to the importance of timing in prehospital airway management, the outcome impact of hyperoxia, and the timing of end-tidal carbon dioxide measurements to predict futility in cardiac arrest resuscitation. In other articles, additional perspectives were provided on the classic correlations between emergency medical service response intervals and outcomes.

Should we emergently revascularize occluded coronaries for cardiac arrest?: rapid-response extracorporeal membrane oxygenation and intra-arrest percutaneous coronary intervention

BACKGROUND

Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) and percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) may be useful in cardiopulmonary resuscitation. However, little is known about the combination of ECMO and intra-arrest PCI. This study investigated the efficacy of rapid-response ECMO and intra-arrest PCI in patients with cardiac arrest complicated by acute coronary syndrome who were unresponsive to conventional cardiopulmonary resuscitation.

METHODS AND RESULTS

This multicenter cohort study was conducted with the use of the database of ECMO in Hiroshima City, Japan. Between January 2004 and May 2011, rapid-response ECMO was performed in 86 patients with acute coronary syndrome who were unresponsive to conventional CPR. The median age of the study patients was 63 years, and 81% were male. Emergency coronary angiography was performed in 81 patients (94%), and intra-arrest PCI was performed in 61 patients (71%). The rates of return of spontaneous heartbeat, 30-day survival, and favorable neurological outcomes were 88%, 29%, and 24%, respectively. All of the patients who received intra-arrest PCI achieved return of spontaneous heartbeat. In patients who survived up to day 30, the rate of out-of-hospital cardiac arrest was lower (58% versus 28%; P=0.01), the intra-arrest PCI was higher (88% versus 70%; P=0.04), and the time interval from collapse to the initiation of ECMO was shorter (40 [25-51] versus 54 minutes [34-74 minutes]; P=0.002).

CONCLUSIONS

Rapid-response ECMO plus intra-arrest PCI is feasible and associated with improved outcomes in patients who are unresponsive to conventional cardiopulmonary resuscitation. On the basis of these findings, randomized studies of intra-arrest PCI are needed.

Extracorporeal cardiopulmonary resuscitation for adult cardiac arrest patients

Cardiac arrest is a major cause of unexpected death in developed countries, and patients with cardiac arrest generally have a poor prognosis. Despite the use of conventional cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR), few patients could achieve return of spontaneous circulation (ROSC). Even if ROSC was achieved, some patients showed re-arrest and many survivors were unable to fully resume their former lifestyles because of severe neurological deficits. Safar et al reported the effectiveness of emergency cardiopulmonary bypass in an animal model and discussed the possibility of employing cardiopulmonary bypass as a CPR method. Because of progress in medical engineering, the system of veno-arterial extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) became small and portable, and it became easy to perform circulatory support in cardiac arrest or shock patients. Extracorporeal cardiopulmonary resuscitation (ECPR) has been reported to be superior to conventional CPR in in-hospital cardiac arrest patients. Veno- arterial ECMO is generally performed in emergency settings and it can be used to perform ECPR in patients with out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. Although there is no sufficient evidence to support the efficacy of ECPR in patients with out-of-hospital cardiac arrest, encouraging results have been obtained in small case series.

A review of the fundamental principles and evidence base in the use of extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) in critically ill adult patients

Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) comprises a commonly used method of extracorporeal life support. It has proven efficacy and is an accepted modality of care for isolated respiratory or cardiopulmonary failure in neonatal and pediatric populations. In adults, there are conflicting studies regarding its benefit, but it is possible that ECMO may be beneficial in certain adult populations beyond postcardiotomy heart failure. As such, all intensivists should be familiar with the evidence-base and principles of ECMO in adult population. The purpose of this article is to review the evidence and to describe the fundamental steps in initiating, adjusting, troubleshooting, and terminating ECMO so as to familiarize the intensivist with this modality.

Derivation of the uncontrolled donation after circulatory determination of death protocol for New York city

Evidence from Europe suggests establishing out-of-hospital, uncontrolled donation after circulatory determination of death (UDCDD) protocols has potential to substantially increase organ availability. The study objective was to derive an out-of-hospital UDCDD protocol that would be acceptable to New York City (NYC) residents. Participatory action research and the SEED-SCALE process for social change guided protocol development in NYC from July 2007 to September 2010. A coalition of government officials, subject experts and communities necessary to achieve support was formed. Authorized NY State and NYC government officials and their legal representatives collaboratively investigated how the program could be implemented under current law and regulations. Community stakeholders (secular and religious organizations) were engaged in town hall style meetings. Ethnographic data (meeting minutes, field notes, quantitative surveys) were collected and posted in a collaborative internet environment. Data were analyzed using an iterative coding scheme to discern themes, theoretical constructs and a summary narrative to guide protocol development. A clinically appropriate, ethically sound UDCDD protocol for out-of-hospital settings has been derived. This program is likely to be accepted by NYC residents since the protocol was derived through partnership with government officials, subject experts and community participants.

Usefulness of routine laboratory parameters in the decision to treat refractory cardiac arrest with extracorporeal life support

AIM

To evaluate the usefulness of routine laboratory parameters in the decision to treat refractory cardiac arrest patients with extracorporeal life support (ECLS).

METHODS

Sixty-six adults with witnessed cardiac arrest of cardiac origin unrelated to poisoning or hypothermia undergoing cardiopulmonary resuscitation without return of spontaneous circulation (duration: 155 min [120-180], median, [25-75%-percentiles]) were included in a prospective cohort-study. ECLS was implemented under cardiac massage, using a centrifugal pump connected to a hollow-fiber membrane-oxygenator, aiming to maintain ECLS flow ≥ 2.5 l/min and mean arterial pressure ≥ 60 mm Hg.

RESULTS

Forty-seven of 66 patients died within 24 h from multiorgan failure and massive capillary leak. Of 19/66 patients who survived ≥ 24 h with stable circulatory conditions permitting neurological evaluation, four became conscious and were transferred for further cardiac assistance, while three became organ donors. Ultimately, one patient survived without neurologic sequelae after cardiac transplantation. Using multivariate analysis, only pre-cannulation peripheral venous oxygen saturation (SpvO₂, 28% [15-52]) independently predicted inability to maintain targeted ECLS conditions ≥ 24 h (odds ratio for each 10%-decrease [95%-confidence interval]: 1.65 [1.21; 2.25], p=0.002). The area under the receiver-operating-characteristics curve was 0.78 [0.63; 0.93]. SpvO₂ cut-off value of 33% was associated with a sensitivity of 0.68 [0.50; 0.83] and specificity of 0.81 [0.54; 0.96]. SpvO₂ ≤ 8%, lactate concentration ≥ 21 mmol/l, fibrinogen ≤ 0.8 g/l, and prothrombin index ≤ 11% predicted premature ECLS discontinuation with a specificity of 1.

CONCLUSION

SpvO₂ is useful to predict the inability of maintaining refractory cardiac arrest victims on ECLS without detrimental capillary leak and multiorgan failure until neurological evaluation.

[Comments on the 2010 guidelines on cardiopulmonary resuscitation of the European Resuscitation Council]

ADULTS

Administer chest compressions (minimum 100/min, minimum 5 cm depth) at a ratio of 30:2 with ventilation (tidal volume 500-600 ml, inspiration time 1 s, F(I)O₂ if possible 1.0). Avoid any interruptions in chest compressions. After every single defibrillation attempt (initially biphasic 120-200 J, monophasic 360 J, subsequently with the respective highest energy), chest compressions are initiated again immediately for 2 min independent of the ECG rhythm. Tracheal intubation is the optimal method for securing the airway during resuscitation but should be performed only by experienced airway management providers. Laryngoscopy is performed during ongoing chest compressions; interruption of chest compressions for a maximum of 10 s to pass the tube through the vocal cords. Supraglottic airway devices are alternatives to tracheal intubation. Drug administration routes for adults and children: first choice i.v., second choice intraosseous (i.o.). Vasopressors: 1 mg epinephrine every 3-5 min i.v. After the third unsuccessful defibrillation amiodarone (300 mg i.v.), repetition (150 mg) possible. Sodium bicarbonate (50 ml 8.4%) only for excessive hyperkaliemia, metabolic acidosis, or intoxication with tricyclic antidepressants. Consider aminophylline (5 mg/kgBW). Thrombolysis during spontaneous circulation only for myocardial infarction or massive pulmonary embolism; during on-going cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) only when indications of massive pulmonary embolism. Active compression-decompression (ACD-CPR) and inspiratory threshold valve (ITV-CPR) are not superior to good standard CPR.

CHILDREN

Most effective improvement of outcome by prevention of full cardiorespiratory arrest. Basic life support: initially five rescue breaths, followed by chest compressions (100-120/min depth about one third of chest diameter), compression-ventilation ratio 15:2. Foreign body airway obstruction with insufficient cough: alternate back blows and chest compressions (infants), or abdominal compressions (children >1 year). Treatment of potentially reversible causes: ("4 Hs and 4 Ts") hypoxia and hypovolaemia, hypokalaemia and hyperkalaemia, hypothermia, and tension pneumothorax, tamponade, toxic/therapeutic disturbances, thrombosis (coronary/pulmonary). Advanced life support: adrenaline (epinephrine) 10 µg/kgBW i.v. or i.o. every 3-5 min. Defibrillation (4 J/kgBW; monophasic or biphasic) followed by 2 min CPR, then ECG and pulse check. NEWBORNS: Initially inflate the lungs with bag-valve mask ventilation (p(AW) 20-40 cmH₂O). If heart rate remains <60/min, start chest compressions (120 chest compressions/min) and ventilation with a ratio 3:1. Maintain normothermia in preterm babies by covering them with foodgrade plastic wrap or similar. POSTRESUSCITATION PHASE: Early protocol-based intensive care stabilization; initiate mild hypothermia early regardless of initial cardiac rhythm [32-34°C for 12-24 h (adults) or 24 h (children); slow rewarming (<0.5°C/h)]. Consider percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) in patients with presumed cardiac ischemia. Prediction of CPR outcome is not possible at the scene, determine neurological outcome <72 h after cardiac arrest with somatosensory evoked potentials, biochemical tests and neurological examination. ACUTE CORONARY SYNDROME: Even if only a weak suspicion of an acute coronary syndrome is present, record a prehospital 12-lead ECG. In parallel to pain therapy, administer aspirin (160-325 mg p.o. or i.v.) and clopidogrel (75-600 mg depending on strategy); in ST-elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) and planned PCI also prasugrel (60 mg p.o.). Antithrombins, such as heparin (60 IU/kgBW, max. 4000 IU), enoxaparin, bivalirudin or fondaparinux depending on the diagnosis (STEMI or non-STEMI-ACS) and the planned therapeutic strategy. In STEMI define reperfusion strategy depending on duration of symptoms until PCI, age and location of infarction. TRAUMA: In severe hemorrhagic shock, definitive control of bleeding is the most important goal. For successful CPR of trauma patients a minimal intravascular volume status and management of hypoxia are essential. Aggressive fluid resuscitation, hyperventilation and excessive ventilation pressure may impair outcome in patients with severe hemorrhagic shock.

TRAINING

Any CPR training is better than nothing; simplification of contents and processes is the main aim.

Scientific, legal, and ethical challenges of end-of-life organ procurement in emergency medicine

AIM

We review (1) scientific evidence questioning the validity of declaring death and procuring organs in heart-beating (i.e., neurological standard of death) and non-heart-beating (i.e., circulatory-respiratory standard of death) donation; (2) consequences of collaborative programs realigning hospital policies to maximize access of procurement coordinators to critically and terminally ill patients as potential donors on arrival in emergency departments; and (3) ethical and legal ramifications of current practices of organ procurement on patients and their families.

DATA SOURCES

Relevant publications in peer-reviewed journals and government websites.

RESULTS

Scientific evidence undermines the biological criteria of death that underpin the definition of death in heart-beating (i.e., neurological standard) and non-heart-beating (i.e., circulatory-respiratory standard) donation. Philosophical reinterpretation of the neurological and circulatory-respiratory standards in the death statute, to avoid the appearance of organ procurement as an active life-ending intervention, lacks public and medical consensus. Collaborative programs bundle procurement coordinators together with hospital staff for a team-huddle and implement a quality improvement tool for a Rapid Assessment of Hospital Procurement Barriers in Donation. Procurement coordinators have access to critically ill patients during the course of medical treatment with no donation consent and with family or surrogates unaware of their roles. How these programs affect the medical care of these patients has not been studied.

CONCLUSIONS

Policies enforcing end-of-life organ procurement can have unintended consequences: (1) erosion of care in the patient's best interests, (2) lack of transparency, and (3) ethical and legal ramifications of flawed standards of declaring death.

Assessment of outcomes and differences between in- and out-of-hospital cardiac arrest patients treated with cardiopulmonary resuscitation using extracorporeal life support

AIM

Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) using extracorporeal life support (ECLS) for in-hospital cardiac arrest (IHCA) patients has been assigned a low-grade recommendation in current resuscitation guidelines. This study compared the outcomes of IHCA and out-of-hospital cardiac arrest (OHCA) patients treated with ECLS.

METHODS

A total of 77 patients were treated with ECLS. Baselines characteristics and outcomes were compared for 38 IHCA and 39 OCHA patients.

RESULTS

The time interval between collapse and starting ECLS was significantly shorter after IHCA than after OHCA (25 (21-43)min versus 59 (45-65)min, p<0.001). The weaning rate from ECLS (61% versus 36%, p=0.03) and 30-day survival (34% versus 13%, p=0.03) were higher for IHCA compared with OHCA patients. IHCA patients had a higher rate of favourable neurological outcome compared to OHCA patients, but the difference was not statistically significant (26% versus 10%, p=0.07). Kaplan-Meier analysis showed improved 30-day and 1-year survival for IHCA patients treated with ECLS compared to OHCA patients who had ECLS. However, multivariate stepwise Cox regression model analysis indicated no difference in 30-day (odds ratio 0.94 (95% confidence interval 0.68-1.27), p=0.67) and 1-year survival (0.99 (0.73-1.33), p=0.95).

CONCLUSION

CPR with ECLS led to more favourable patient outcomes after IHCA compared with OHCA in our patient group. The difference in outcomes for ECLS after IHCA and OHCA disappeared after adjusting for patient factors and the time delay in starting ECLS.

Patient selection and therapeutic strategy for emergency percutaneous cardiopulmonary system in cardiopulmonary arrest patients

BACKGROUND

To clarify the appropriate application and therapeutic strategy for the percutaneous cardiopulmonary system (PCPS) in patients in cardiopulmonary arrest (CPA), the effects of the duration of cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR), diagnosis of underlying diseases, subsequent intervention and complications were retrospectively investigated for the correlation between discharge or death of patients. The patients were treated under an identical therapeutic PCPS protocol.

METHODS AND RESULTS

The 69 CPA patients [55 males (78.6%), 14 females; age, 55.0 +/-15.3 years; age range 15-79 years, 50 in-hospital CPA (I-CPA) and 19 out-of-hospital CPA (O-CPA) patients] were treated with emergency PCPS. The mean duration of CPR was 43.6 +/-37.4 min. Of 18 discharged patients (26.1%), 14 had I-CPA and 4 had O-CPA. Significant factors in the discharge of patients were confirmed diagnosis, subsequent treatment and prevention of complications associated with PCPS.

CONCLUSIONS

Appropriate patient selection for PCPS in cases of O-CPA is likely to give a similar survival rate as for I-CPA. Patient selection and reversibility of the underlying disease and clinical state after starting PCPS affect the prognosis. Aggressive diagnosis and therapy for the underlying disease and prevention of complications associated with PCPS are essential factors in successful discharge of patients. Patients with an unknown etiology are not expected to fully recover, despite PCPS.

Percutaneous left ventricular assist in ischemic cardiac arrest

BACKGROUND

Ischemic cardiac arrest represents a challenge for optimal emergency revascularization therapy. A percutaneous left ventricular assist device (LVAD) may be beneficial.

OBJECTIVE

To determine the effect of a percutaneous LVAD during cardiac arrest without chest compressions and to assess the effect of fluid loading.

DESIGN

Totally, 16 pigs randomized to either conventional or intensive fluid with LVAD support during ventricular fibrillation (VF).

SETTING

Acute experimental trial with pigs under general anesthesia.

SUBJECTS

Farm pigs of both sexes.

INTERVENTIONS

After randomization for fluid infusion, VF was induced by balloon occlusion of the proximal left anterior descending artery. LVAD and fluid were started after VF had been induced.

MEASUREMENTS

Brain, kidney, myocardial tissue perfusion, and cardiac index were measured with the microsphere injection technique at baseline, 3, and 15 minutes. Additional hemodynamic monitoring continued until 30 minutes.

MAIN RESULTS

At 15 minutes, vital organ perfusion was maintained without significant differences between the two groups. Mean cardiac index at 3 minutes of VF was 1.2 L x min(-1) x m2 (29% of baseline, p < 0.05). Mean perfusion at 3 minutes was 65% in the brain and 74% in the myocardium compared with baseline (p < 0.05), then remained unchanged during the initial 15 minutes. At 30 minutes, LVAD function was sustained in 11 of 16 animals (8 of 8 intensified fluid vs. 3 of 8 conventional fluid) and was associated with intensified fluid loading (p < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

During VF, a percutaneous LVAD may sustain vital organ perfusion. A potential clinical role of the device during cardiac arrest has yet to be established.

Organ Procurement After Cardiocirculatory Death: A Critical Analysis

To shorten the transplantation waiting time in the United States, federal regulations have been introduced requiring hospitals to develop policies for organ donation after cardiac (or circulatory) death (DCD). The practice of DCD is invoked based on the validity of the University of Pittsburgh Medical Center (UPMC) protocol and relies on the accuracy of the University of Wisconsin (UW) evaluation tool to appropriately identify organ donors. There is little evidence to support the position that the criteria for organ procurement adopted from the UPMC protocol complies with the dead donor rule. A high false-positive rate of the UW evaluation tool can expose many dying patients to unnecessary perimortem interventions because of donation failure. The medications and/or interventions for the sole purpose of maintaining organ viability can have unintended negative consequences on the timing and quality of end-of-life care offered to organ donors. It is essential to address and manage the evolving conflict between optimal end-of-life care and the necessary sacrifices for the procurement of transplantable organs from the terminally ill. The recipients of marginal organs recovered from DCD can also suffer higher mortality and morbidity than recipients of other types of donated organs. Finally, transparent disclosure to the public of the risks involved to both organ donors and recipients may contribute to open societal debate on the ethical acceptability of DCD.

"Non-heart-beating," or "cardiac death," organ donation: why we should care

BACKGROUND

Organ donation after cessation of cardiac pump activity is referred to as non-heart-beating organ donation (NHBOD). NHBOD donors can be neurologically intact; they do not fulfill the brain death criteria prior to cessation of cardiac pump activity. For hospitals to participate in NHBOD, they must comply with a newly introduced federal requirement for ICU patients whose deaths are considered imminent after withdrawal of life support. This report describes issues related to NHBOD.

METHODS

A nonstructured review of selected publications and Web sites was undertaken.

RESULTS

Scientific evidence from autoresuscitation and extracorporeal perfusion suggests that verifying cardiorespiratory arrest lasting 2-5 minutes does not uniformly comply with the dead donor rule, so that the process of organ procurement can be the irreversible event defining death in organ donors. The interest of organ procurement organizations and affiliates in maximizing recovery of transplantable organs introduces self-serving bias in gaining consent for organ donation and abandons the basic tenet of obtaining true informed consent. The impact of donor management and procurement protocols on end-of-life (EOL) care and the potential trade-off are not disclosed, raising concern about whether potential donors and their families are fully informed before consenting to donation.

CONCLUSIONS

The use of comprehensive quality indicators for EOL care can determine the impact of NHBOD on care offered to donors and the effects on families and health care providers. Detailed evaluation of NHBOD will enable the public to make informed decisions about participating in this type of organ donation.

Emergency feasibility in medical intensive care unit of extracorporeal life support for refractory cardiac arrest

OBJECTIVE

To report the feasibility, complications, and outcomes of emergency extracorporeal life support (ECLS) in refractory cardiac arrests in medical intensive care unit (ICU).

DESIGN AND SETTING

Prospective cohort study in the medical ICU in a university hospital in collaboration with the cardiosurgical team of a neighboring hospital.

PATIENTS

Seventeen patients (poisonings: 12/17) admitted over a 2-year period for cardiac arrest unresponsive to cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) and advanced cardiac life support, without return of spontaneous circulation.

INTERVENTIONS

ECLS femoral implantation under continuous cardiac massage, using a centrifugal pump connected to a hollow-fiber membrane oxygenator.

MEASUREMENTS AND RESULTS

Stable ECLS was achieved in 14 of 17 patients. Early complications included massive transfusions (n=8) and the need for surgical revision at the cannulation site for bleeding (n=1). Four patients (24%) survived at medical ICU discharge. Deaths resulted from multiorgan failure (n=8), thoracic bleeding(n=2), severe sepsis (n=2), and brain death (n=1). Massive hemorrhagic pulmonary edema during CPR (n=5) and major capillary leak syndrome (n=6) were observed. Three cardiotoxic-poisoned patients (18%, CPR duration: 30, 100, and 180 min) were alive at 1-year follow-up without sequelae. Two of these patients survived despite elevated plasma lactate concentrations before cannulation (39.0 and 20.0 mmol/l). ECLS was associated with a significantly lower ICU mortality rate than that expected from the Simplified Acute Physiology Score II (91.9%) and lower than the maximum Sequential Organ Failure Assessment score (>90%).

CONCLUSIONS

Emergency ECLS is feasible in medical ICU and should be considered as a resuscitative tool for selected patients suffering from refractory cardiac arrest.