SGT2 and MDY2 interact with molecular chaperone YDJ1 in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

The formation of chaperone-rich GET bodies depends on the tetratricopeptide repeat region of Sgt2 and is reversed by NADH

The guided-entry of tail-anchored proteins (GET) pathway is a post-translational targeting route to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Upon glucose withdrawal, the soluble GET proteins re-localize to dynamic cytosolic foci, here termed GET bodies. Our data reveal that the pre-targeting complex components, Sgt2 and the Get4-Get5 heterodimer, and the Get3 ATPase play important roles in the assembly of these structures in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. More specifically, the TPR region of Sgt2 is required as a GET body scaffold. Systematic compositional analyses of GET bodies reveal their chaperone-rich nature and the presence of numerous proteins involved in metabolic processes. Temporal analyses of GET body assembly demonstrate the sequential recruitment of different chaperones, and we discover the requirement of Sis1 and Sti1 for maintaining the dynamic properties of these structures. In vivo, NADH derived from the oxidation of ethanol to acetaldehyde can induce GET body disassembly in a reaction depending on the alcohol dehydrogenase Adh2 and in vitro, addition of NADH resolves GET bodies. This suggests a mechanistic basis for their formation and disassembly in response to the metabolic shift caused by glucose withdrawal and re-addition.

Saccharomyces cerevisiae as a tool for deciphering Hsp90 molecular chaperone function

Yeast is a valuable model organism for their ease of genetic manipulation, rapid growth rate, and relative similarity to higher eukaryotes. Historically, Saccharomyces cerevisiae has played a major role in discovering the function of complex proteins and pathways that are important for human health and disease. Heat shock protein 90 (Hsp90) is a molecular chaperone responsible for the stabilization and activation of hundreds of integral members of the cellular signaling network. Much important structural and functional work, including many seminal discoveries in Hsp90 biology are the direct result of work carried out in S. cerevisiae. Here, we have provided a brief overview of the S. cerevisiae model system and described how this eukaryotic model organism has been successfully applied to the study of Hsp90 chaperone function.

Volleying plasma membrane proteins from birth to death: Role of J-domain proteins

The function, stability, and turnover of plasma membrane (PM) proteins are crucial for cellular homeostasis. Compared to soluble proteins, quality control of plasma membrane proteins is extremely challenging. Failure to meet the high quality control standards is detrimental to cellular and organismal health. J-domain proteins (JDPs) are among the most diverse group of chaperones that collaborate with other chaperones and protein degradation machinery to oversee cellular protein quality control (PQC). Although fragmented, the available literature from different models, including yeast, mammals, and plants, suggests that JDPs assist PM proteins with their synthesis, folding, and trafficking to their destination as well as their degradation, either through endocytic or proteasomal degradation pathways. Moreover, some JDPs interact directly with the membrane to regulate the stability and/or functionality of proteins at the PM. The deconvoluted picture emerging is that PM proteins are relayed from one JDP to another throughout their life cycle, further underscoring the versatility of the Hsp70:JDP machinery in the cell.

Ribosome-bound Get4/5 facilitates the capture of tail-anchored proteins by Sgt2 in yeast

The guided entry of tail-anchored proteins (GET) pathway assists in the posttranslational delivery of tail-anchored proteins, containing a single C-terminal transmembrane domain, to the ER. Here we uncover how the yeast GET pathway component Get4/5 facilitates capture of tail-anchored proteins by Sgt2, which interacts with tail-anchors and hands them over to the targeting component Get3. Get4/5 binds directly and with high affinity to ribosomes, positions Sgt2 close to the ribosomal tunnel exit, and facilitates the capture of tail-anchored proteins by Sgt2. The contact sites of Get4/5 on the ribosome overlap with those of SRP, the factor mediating cotranslational ER-targeting. Exposure of internal transmembrane domains at the tunnel exit induces high-affinity ribosome binding of SRP, which in turn prevents ribosome binding of Get4/5. In this way, the position of a transmembrane domain within nascent ER-targeted proteins mediates partitioning into either the GET or SRP pathway directly at the ribosomal tunnel exit.

The guided entry of tail-anchored proteins (GET) pathway assists in the delivery of such proteins to the ER. Here, the authors reveal that the pathway components Get4/5 probe a region near the ribosomal exit tunnel. Upon emergence of a client protein, Get4/5 recruits Sgt2 and initiates the targeting phase of the pathway.

Co-Chaperones in Targeting and Delivery of Misfolded Proteins to the 26S Proteasome

Protein homeostasis (proteostasis) is essential for the cell and is maintained by a highly conserved protein quality control (PQC) system, which triages newly synthesized, mislocalized and misfolded proteins. The ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS), molecular chaperones, and co-chaperones are vital PQC elements that work together to facilitate degradation of misfolded and toxic protein species through the 26S proteasome. However, the underlying mechanisms are complex and remain partly unclear. Here, we provide an overview of the current knowledge on the co-chaperones that directly take part in targeting and delivery of PQC substrates for degradation. While J-domain proteins (JDPs) target substrates for the heat shock protein 70 (HSP70) chaperones, nucleotide-exchange factors (NEFs) deliver HSP70-bound substrates to the proteasome. So far, three NEFs have been established in proteasomal delivery: HSP110 and the ubiquitin-like (UBL) domain proteins BAG-1 and BAG-6, the latter acting as a chaperone itself and carrying its substrates directly to the proteasome. A better understanding of the individual delivery pathways will improve our ability to regulate the triage, and thus regulate the fate of aberrant proteins involved in cell stress and disease, examples of which are given throughout the review.

The roles of cytosolic quality control proteins, SGTA and the BAG6 complex, in disease

SGTA is a co-chaperone that, in collaboration with the complex of BAG6/UBL4A/TRC35, facilitates the biogenesis and quality control of hydrophobic proteins, protecting them from the aqueous cytosolic environment. This work includes targeting tail-anchored proteins to their resident membranes, sorting of membrane and secretory proteins that mislocalize to the cytoplasm and endoplasmic reticulum-associated degradation of misfolded proteins. Since these functions are all vital for the cell's continued proteostasis, their disruption poses a threat to the cell, with a particular risk of protein aggregation, a phenomenon that underpins many diseases. Although the specific disease implications of machinery involved in quality control of hydrophobic substrates are poorly understood, here we summarize much of the available information on this topic.

Genetic algorithm for assigning weights to gene expressions using functional annotations

A method, named genetic algorithm for assigning weights to gene expressions using functional annotations (GAAWGEFA), is developed to assign proper weights to the gene expressions at each time point. The weights are estimated using functional annotations of the genes in a genetic algorithm framework. The method shows gene similarity in an improved manner as compared with other existing methods because it takes advantage of the existing functional annotations of the genes. The weight combination for the expressions at different time points is determined by maximizing the fitness function of GAAWGEFA in terms of the positive predictive value (PPV) for the top 10,000 gene pairs. The performance of the proposed method is primarily compared with Biweight mid correlation (BICOR) and original expression values for the six Saccharomyces cerevisiae datasets and one Bacillus subtilis dataset. The utility of GAAWGEFA is shown in predicting the functions of 48 unclassified genes (using p-value cutoff 10^-13) from Saccharomyces cerevisiae microarray data where the expressions are weighted using GAAWGEFA and are clustered using k-medoids algorithm. The related code along with various parameters is available at http://sampa.droppages.com/GAAWGEFA.html.

Evidence for interaction between Hsp90 and the ER membrane complex

Numerous putative heat shock protein 90 (Hsp90)-interacting proteins, which could represent novel folding clients or co-chaperones, have been identified in recent years. Two separate high-throughput screens in yeast uncovered genetic effects between Hsp90 and components of the ER membrane complex (EMC), which is required for tolerance to unfolded protein response stress in yeast. Herein, we provide the first experimental evidence supporting that there is a genuine interaction of Hsp90 with the EMC. We demonstrate genetic interactions between EMC2 and the known Hsp90 co-chaperone encoded by STI1, as well as Hsp90 point mutant allele-specific differences in inherent growth and Hsp90 inhibitor tolerance in the absence and presence of EMC2. In co-precipitation experiments, Hsp90 interacts with Emc2p, whether or not Emc2p contains amino acid sequences designated as a tetratricopeptide repeat motif. Yeast with multiple EMC gene deletions exhibit increased sensitivity to Hsp90 inhibitor as well as defective folding of the well-established Hsp90 folding client, the glucocorticoid receptor. Altogether, our evidence of physical, genetic, and functional interaction of Hsp90 with the EMC, as well as bioinformatic analysis of shared interactors, supports that there is a legitimate interaction between them in vivo.

Mechanisms of Tail-Anchored Membrane Protein Targeting and Insertion

Proper localization of membrane proteins is essential for the function of biological membranes and for the establishment of organelle identity within a cell. Molecular machineries that mediate membrane protein biogenesis need to not only achieve a high degree of efficiency and accuracy, but also prevent off-pathway aggregation events that can be detrimental to cells. The posttranslational targeting of tail-anchored proteins (TAs) provides tractable model systems to probe these fundamental issues. Recent advances in understanding TA-targeting pathways reveal sophisticated molecular machineries that drive and regulate these processes. These findings also suggest how an interconnected network of targeting factors, cochaperones, and quality control machineries together ensures robust membrane protein biogenesis.

Prions, Chaperones, and Proteostasis in Yeast

Prions are alternatively folded, self-perpetuating protein isoforms involved in a variety of biological and pathological processes. Yeast prions are protein-based heritable elements that serve as an excellent experimental system for studying prion biology. The propagation of yeast prions is controlled by the same Hsp104/70/40 chaperone machinery that is involved in the protection of yeast cells against proteotoxic stress. Ribosome-associated chaperones, proteolytic pathways, cellular quality-control compartments, and cytoskeletal networks influence prion formation, maintenance, and toxicity. Environmental stresses lead to asymmetric prion distribution in cell divisions. Chaperones and cytoskeletal proteins mediate this effect. Overall, this is an intimate relationship with the protein quality-control machinery of the cell, which enables prions to be maintained and reproduced. The presence of many of these same mechanisms in higher eukaryotes has implications for the diagnosis and treatment of mammalian amyloid diseases.

Small Glutamine-Rich Tetratricopeptide Repeat-Containing Protein Alpha (SGTA) Ablation Limits Offspring Viability and Growth in Mice

Small glutamine-rich tetratricopeptide repeat-containing protein α (SGTA) has been implicated as a co-chaperone and regulator of androgen and growth hormone receptor (AR, GHR) signalling. We investigated the functional consequences of partial and full Sgta ablation in vivo using Cre-lox Sgta-null mice. Sgta(+/-) breeders generated viable Sgta(-/-) offspring, but at less than Mendelian expectancy. Sgta(-/-) breeders were subfertile with small litters and higher neonatal death (P < 0.02). Body size was significantly and proportionately smaller in male and female Sgta(-/-) (vs WT, Sgta(+/-) P < 0.001) from d19. Serum IGF-1 levels were genotype- and sex-dependent. Food intake, muscle and bone mass and adiposity were unchanged in Sgta(-/-). Vital and sex organs had normal relative weight, morphology and histology, although certain androgen-sensitive measures such as penis and preputial size, and testis descent, were greater in Sgta(-/-). Expression of AR and its targets remained largely unchanged, although AR localisation was genotype- and tissue-dependent. Generally expression of other TPR-containing proteins was unchanged. In conclusion, this thorough investigation of SGTA-null mutation reports a mild phenotype of reduced body size. The model's full potential likely will be realised by genetic crosses with other models to interrogate the role of SGTA in the many diseases in which it has been implicated.

Ubiquitin-like domains can target to the proteasome but proteolysis requires a disordered region

Ubiquitin and some of its homologues target proteins to the proteasome for degradation. Other ubiquitin-like domains are involved in cellular processes unrelated to the proteasome, and proteins containing these domains remain stable in the cell. We find that the 10 yeast ubiquitin-like domains tested bind to the proteasome, and that all 11 identified domains can target proteins for degradation. Their apparent proteasome affinities are not directly related to their stabilities or functions. That is, ubiquitin-like domains in proteins not part of the ubiquitin proteasome system may bind the proteasome more tightly than domains in proteins that are bona fide components. We propose that proteins with ubiquitin-like domains have properties other than proteasome binding that confer stability. We show that one of these properties is the absence of accessible disordered regions that allow the proteasome to initiate degradation. In support of this model, we find that Mdy2 is degraded in yeast when a disordered region in the protein becomes exposed and that the attachment of a disordered region to Ubp6 leads to its degradation.

Structure of a BAG6 (Bcl-2-associated athanogene 6)-Ubl4a (ubiquitin-like protein 4a) complex reveals a novel binding interface that functions in tail-anchored protein biogenesis

BAG6 is an essential protein that functions in two distinct biological pathways, ubiquitin-mediated protein degradation of defective polypeptides and tail-anchored (TA) transmembrane protein biogenesis in mammals, although its structural and functional properties remain unknown. We solved a crystal structure of the C-terminal heterodimerization domains of BAG6 and Ubl4a and characterized their interaction biochemically. Unexpectedly, the specificity and structure of the C terminus of BAG6, which was previously classified as a BAG domain, were completely distinct from those of the canonical BAG domain. Furthermore, the tight association of BAG6 and Ubl4a resulted in modulation of Ubl4a protein stability in cells. Therefore, we propose to designate the Ubl4a-binding region of BAG6 as the novel BAG-similar (BAGS) domain. The structure of Ubl4a, which interacts with BAG6, is similar to the yeast homologue Get5, which forms a homodimer. These observations indicate that the BAGS domain of BAG6 promotes the TA protein biogenesis pathway in mammals by the interaction with Ubl4a.

Structural and functional characterization of ybr137wp implicates its involvement in the targeting of tail-anchored proteins to membranes

Nearly 5% of membrane proteins are guided to nuclear, endoplasmic reticulum (ER), mitochondrial, Golgi, or peroxisome membranes by their C-terminal transmembrane domain and are classified as tail-anchored (TA) membrane proteins. In Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the guided entry of TA protein (GET) pathway has been shown to function in the delivery of TA proteins to the ER. The sorting complex for this pathway is comprised of Sgt2, Get4, and Get5 and facilitates the loading of nascent tail-anchored proteins onto the Get3 ATPase. Multiple pulldown assays also indicated that Ybr137wp associates with this complex in vivo. Here, we report a 2.8-Å-resolution crystal structure for Ybr137wp from Saccharomyces cerevisiae. The protein is a decamer in the crystal and also in solution, as observed by size exclusion chromatography and analytical ultracentrifugation. In addition, isothermal titration calorimetry indicated that the C-terminal acidic motif of Ybr137wp interacts with the tetratricopeptide repeat (TPR) domain of Sgt2. Moreover, an in vivo study demonstrated that Ybr137wp is induced in yeast exiting the log phase and ameliorates the defect of TA protein delivery and cell viability derived by the impaired GET system under starvation conditions. Therefore, this study suggests a possible role for Ybr137wp related to targeting of tail-anchored proteins.

The cochaperone SGTA (small glutamine-rich tetratricopeptide repeat-containing protein alpha) demonstrates regulatory specificity for the androgen, glucocorticoid, and progesterone receptors

Steroid hormone receptors are ligand-dependent transcription factors that require the ordered assembly of multichaperone complexes for transcriptional activity. Although heat shock protein (Hsp) 90 and Hsp70 are key players in this process, multiple Hsp70- and Hsp90-associated cochaperones associate with receptor-chaperone complexes to regulate receptor folding and activation. Small glutamine-rich tetratricopeptide repeat-containing protein alpha (SGTA) was recently characterized as an Hsp70 and Hsp90-associated cochaperone that specifically regulates androgen receptor activity. However, the specificity of SGTA for additional members of the steroid hormone receptor superfamily and the mechanism by which SGTA regulates receptor activity remain unclear. Here we report that SGTA associates with and specifically regulates the androgen, glucocorticoid, and progesterone receptors and has no effect on the mineralocorticoid and estrogen receptors in both yeast and mammalian cell-based reporter assays. In both systems, SGTA knockdown/deletion enhances receptor activity, whereas SGTA overexpression suppresses receptor activity. We demonstrate that SGTA binds directly to Hsp70 and Hsp90 in vitro with similar affinities yet predominately precipitates with Hsp70 from cell lysates, suggesting a role for SGTA in early, Hsp70-mediated folding. Furthermore, SGTA expression completely abrogates the regulation of receptor function by FKBP52 (52-kDa FK506-binding protein), which acts at a later stage of the chaperone cycle. Taken together, our data suggest a role for SGTA at distinct steps in the chaperone-dependent modulation of androgen, glucocorticoid, and progesterone receptor activity.

Structure of the Sgt2 dimerization domain complexed with the Get5 UBL domain involved in the targeting of tail-anchored membrane proteins to the endoplasmic reticulum

The insertion of tail-anchored membrane (TA) proteins into the appropriate membrane is a post-translational event that requires stabilization of the transmembrane domain and targeting to the proper destination. Sgt2, a small glutamine-rich tetratricopeptide-repeat protein, is a heat-shock protein cognate (HSC) co-chaperone that preferentially binds endoplasmic reticulum-destined TA proteins and directs them to the GET pathway via Get4 and Get5. The N-terminal domain of Sgt2 seems to exert dual functions. It mediates Get5 interaction and allows substrate delivery to Get3. Following the N-terminus of Get5 is a ubiquitin-like (Ubl) domain that interacts with the N-terminus of Sgt2. Here, the crystal structure of the Sgt2 dimerization domain complexed with the Get5 Ubl domain (Sgt2N-Get5Ubl) is reported. This complex reveals an intimate interaction between one Sgt2 dimer and one Get5 monomer. This research further demonstrates that hydrophobic residues from both Sgt2 and Get5 play an important role in cell survival under heat stress. This study provides detailed molecular insights into the specific binding of this GET-pathway complex.

Structure of the Sgt2/Get5 complex provides insights into GET-mediated targeting of tail-anchored membrane proteins

Small, glutamine-rich, tetratricopeptide repeat protein 2 (Sgt2) is the first known port of call for many newly synthesized tail-anchored (TA) proteins released from the ribosome and destined for the GET (Guided Entry of TA proteins) pathway. This leads them to the residential membrane of the endoplasmic reticulum via an alternative to the cotranslational, signal recognition particle-dependent mechanism that their topology denies them. In yeast, the first stage of the GET pathway involves Sgt2 passing TA proteins on to the Get4/Get5 complex through a direct interaction between the N-terminal (NT) domain of Sgt2 and the ubiquitin-like (UBL) domain of Get5. Here we characterize this interaction at a molecular level by solving both a solution structure of Sgt2_NT, which adopts a unique helical fold, and a crystal structure of the Get5_UBL. Furthermore, using reciprocal chemical shift perturbation data and experimental restraints, we solve a structure of the Sgt2_NT/Get5_UBL complex, validate it via site-directed mutagenesis, and empirically determine its stoichiometry using relaxation experiments and isothermal titration calorimetry. Taken together, these data provide detailed structural information about the interaction between two key players in the coordinated delivery of TA protein substrates into the GET pathway.

Nuclear import of UBL-domain protein Mdy2 is required for heat-induced stress response in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Ubiquitin (Ub) and ubiquitin-like (UBL) proteins regulate a diverse array of cellular pathways through covalent as well as non-covalent interactions with target proteins. Yeast protein Mdy2 (Get5) and its human homolog GdX (Ubl4a) belong to the class of UBL proteins which do not form conjugates with other proteins. Mdy2 is required for cell survival under heat stress and for efficient mating. As part of a complex with Sgt2 and Get4 it has been implicated in the biogenesis of tail-anchored proteins. Interestingly, in response to heat stress, Mdy2 protein that is predominantly localized in the nucleus co-localized with poly(A)-binding protein Pab1 to cytoplasmic stress granules suggesting that nucleocytoplasmic shuttling is of functional importance. Here we investigate the nuclear import of Mdy2, a process that is independent of the Get4/Sgt2 complex but required for stress response. Nuclear import is mediated by an N-terminal nuclear localization signal (NLS) and this process is essential for the heat stress response. In contrast, cells expressing Mdy2 lacking a nuclear export signal (NES) behave like wild type. Importantly, both Mdy2 and Mdy2-ΔNES, but not Mdy2-ΔNLS, physically interact with Pab1 and this interaction correlates with the accumulation in cytoplasmic stress granules. Thus, the nuclear history of the UBL Mdy2 appears to be essential for its function in cytoplasmic stress granules during the rapid cellular response to heat stress.

New phenotypes generated by the G57R mutation of BUD23 in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

BUD23 in Saccharomyces cerevisiae encodes for a class I methyltransferase, and deletion of the gene results in slow growth and random budding phenotypes. Herein, two BUD23 mutants defective in methyltransferase activity were generated to investigate whether the phenotypes of the null mutant might be correlated with a loss in enzymatic activity. Expression at the physiological level of both D77A and G57R mutants was able to rescue the phenotypes of the bud23-null mutant. The result implied that the methyltransferase activity of the protein was not necessary for supporting normal growth and bud site selection of the cells. High-level expression of Bud23 (G57R), but not Bud23 or Bud23 (D77A), in BUD23 deletion cells failed to complement these phenotypes. However, just like Bud23, Bud23 (G57R) was localized in a DAPI-poor region in the nucleus. Distinct behaviour in Bud23 (G57R) could not be originated from a mislocalization of the protein. Over-expression of Bud23 (G57R) in null cells also produced changes in actin organization and additional septin mutant-like phenotypes. Therefore, the absence of Bud23, Bud23 (G57R) at a high level might affect the cell division of yeast cells through an as yet unidentified mechanism.

Structures of the Sgt2/SGTA dimerization domain with the Get5/UBL4A UBL domain reveal an interaction that forms a conserved dynamic interface

In the cytoplasm, the correct delivery of membrane proteins is an essential and highly regulated process. The posttranslational targeting of the important tail-anchor membrane (TA) proteins has recently been under intense investigation. A specialized pathway, called the guided entry of TA proteins (GET) pathway in yeast and the transmembrane domain recognition complex (TRC) pathway in vertebrates, recognizes endoplasmic-reticulum-targeted TA proteins and delivers them through a complex series of handoffs. An early step is the formation of a complex between Sgt2/SGTA, a cochaperone with a presumed ubiquitin-like-binding domain (UBD), and Get5/UBL4A, a ubiquitin-like domain (UBL)-containing protein. We structurally characterize this UBD/UBL interaction for both yeast and human proteins. This characterization is supported by biophysical studies that demonstrate that complex formation is mediated by electrostatics, generating an interface that has high-affinity with rapid kinetics. In total, this work provides a refined model of the interplay of Sgt2 homologs in TA targeting.

Regulation of chaperone effects on a yeast prion by cochaperone Sgt2

Yeast prions, based on self-seeded highly ordered fibrous aggregates (amyloids), serve as a model for human amyloid diseases. Propagation of yeast prions depends on the balance between chaperones of the Hsp100 and Hsp70 families. The yeast prion [PSI(+)] can be eliminated by an excess of the chaperone Hsp104. This effect is reversed by an excess of the chaperone Hsp70-Ssa. Here we show that the actions of Hsp104 and Ssa on [PSI(+)] are modulated by the small glutamine-rich tetratricopeptide cochaperone Sgt2. Sgt2 is conserved from yeast to humans, has previously been implicated in the guided entry of tail-anchored proteins (GET) trafficking pathway, and is known to interact with Hsps, cytosolic Get proteins, and tail-anchored proteins. We demonstrate that Sgt2 increases the ability of excess Ssa to counteract [PSI(+)] curing by excess Hsp104. Deletion of SGT2 also restores trafficking of a tail-anchored protein in cells with a disrupted GET pathway. One region of Sgt2 interacts both with the prion domain of Sup35 and with tail-anchored proteins. Sgt2 levels are increased in response to the presence of a prion when major Hsps are not induced. Our data implicate Sgt2 as an amyloid "sensor" and a regulator of chaperone targeting to different types of aggregation-prone proteins.

Comprehensive review on the HSC70 functions, interactions with related molecules and involvement in clinical diseases and therapeutic potential

Heat shock cognate protein 70 (HSC70) is a constitutively expressed molecular chaperone which belongs to the heat shock protein 70 (HSP70) family. HSC70 shares some of the structural and functional similarity with HSP70. HSC70 also has different properties compared with HSP70 and other heat shock family members. HSC70 performs its full functions by the cooperation of co-chaperones. It interacts with many other molecules as well and regulates various cellular functions. It is also involved in various diseases and may become a biomarker for diagnosis and potential therapeutic targets for design, discovery, and development of novel drugs to treat various diseases. In this article, we provide a comprehensive review on HSC70 from the literatures including the basic general information such as classification, structure and cellular location, genetics and function, as well as its protein association and interaction with other proteins. In addition, we also discussed the relationship of HSC70 and related clinical diseases such as cancer, cardiovascular, neurological, hepatic and many other diseases and possible therapeutic potential and highlight the progress and prospects of research in this field. Understanding the functions of HSC70 and its interaction with other molecules will help us to reveal other novel properties of this protein. Scientists may be able to utilize this protein as a biomarker and therapeutic target to make significant advancement in scientific research and clinical setting in the future.

Interaction surface and topology of Get3-Get4-Get5 protein complex, involved in targeting tail-anchored proteins to endoplasmic reticulum

Recent work has uncovered the "GET system," which is responsible for endoplasmic reticulum targeting of tail-anchored proteins. Although structural information and the individual roles of most components of this system have been defined, the interactions and interplay between them remain to be elucidated. Here, we investigated the interactions between Get3 and the Get4-Get5 complex from Saccharomyces cerevisiae. We show that Get3 interacts with Get4-Get5 via an interface dominated by electrostatic forces. Using isothermal titration calorimetry and small-angle x-ray scattering, we further demonstrate that the Get3 homodimer interacts with two copies of the Get4-Get5 complex to form an extended conformation in solution.

Tail-anchor targeting by a Get3 tetramer: the structure of an archaeal homologue

Efficient delivery of membrane proteins is a critical cellular process. The recently elucidated GET (Guided Entry of TA proteins) pathway is responsible for the targeted delivery of tail-anchored (TA) membrane proteins to the endoplasmic reticulum. The central player is the ATPase Get3, which in its free form exists as a dimer. Biochemical evidence suggests a role for a tetramer of Get3. Here, we present the first crystal structure of an archaeal Get3 homologue that exists as a tetramer and is capable of TA protein binding. The tetramer generates a hydrophobic chamber that we propose binds the TA protein. We use small-angle X-ray scattering to provide the first structural information of a fungal Get3/TA protein complex showing that the overall molecular envelope is consistent with the archaeal tetramer structure. Moreover, we show that this fungal tetramer complex is capable of TA insertion. This allows us to suggest a model where a tetramer of Get3 sequesters a TA protein during targeting to the membrane.

A structural model of the Sgt2 protein and its interactions with chaperones and the Get4/Get5 complex

The insertion of tail-anchored transmembrane (TA) proteins into the appropriate membrane is a post-translational event that requires stabilization of the transmembrane domain and targeting to the proper destination. Sgt2 is a heat-shock protein cognate (HSC) co-chaperone that preferentially binds endoplasmic reticulum-destined TA proteins and directs them to the GET pathway via Get4 and Get5. Here, we present the crystal structure from a fungal Sgt2 homolog of the tetratrico-repeat (TPR) domain and part of the linker that connects to the C-terminal domain. The linker extends into the two-carboxylate clamp of the TPR domain from a symmetry-related molecule mimicking the binding to HSCs. Based on this structure, we provide biochemical evidence that the Sgt2 TPR domain has the ability to directly bind multiple HSC family members. The structure allows us to propose features involved in this lower specificity relative to other TPR containing co-chaperones. We further show that a dimer of Sgt2 binds a single Get5 and use small angle x-ray scattering to characterize the domain arrangement of Sgt2 in solution. These results allow us to present a structural model of the Sgt2-Get4/Get5-HSC complex.

The mechanism of tail-anchored protein insertion into the ER membrane

Tail-anchored (TA) proteins access the secretory pathway via posttranslational insertion of their C-terminal transmembrane domain into the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Get3 is an ATPase that delivers TA proteins to the ER by interacting with the Get1-Get2 transmembrane complex, but how Get3's nucleotide cycle drives TA protein insertion remains unclear. Here, we establish that nucleotide binding to Get3 promotes Get3-TA protein complex formation by recruiting Get3 to a chaperone that hands over TA proteins to Get3. Biochemical reconstitution and mutagenesis reveal that the Get1-Get2 complex comprises the minimal TA protein insertion machinery with functionally critical cytosolic regions. By engineering a soluble heterodimer of Get1-Get2 cytosolic domains, we uncover the mechanism of TA protein release from Get3: Get2 tethers Get3-TA protein complexes into proximity with the ATPase-dependent, substrate-releasing activity of Get1. Lastly, we show that ATP enhances Get3 dissociation from the membrane, thus freeing Get1-Get2 for new rounds of substrate insertion.

Cooperative and independent activities of Sgt2 and Get5 in the targeting of tail-anchored proteins

TPR proteins modulate the activity of molecular chaperones. Here, we describe the S. cerevisiae TPR protein Sgt2 as interaction partner of Ssa1 and Hsp104 and as a component of the GET pathway by interacting with Get5. The GET pathway mediates the sorting of tail-anchored (TA) proteins, harboring a C-terminal trans-membrane segment, to the ER membrane. S. cerevisiae sgt2Δ cells show partial defects in TA protein sorting. Sgt2 activity in vivo relies on its N- and C-terminal domains, whereas the central TPR domain and thus chaperone interactions are dispensable. We show that TA protein sorting defects are more severe in sgt2Δ get5Δ mutants compared to single knockouts. Furthermore, overproduction of Sgt2 becomes toxic to get3Δ but not to get5Δ cells. Together, these findings indicate an additional, Get5-independent role of Sgt2 in TA protein sorting, pointing to parallel pathways of substrate delivery to Get3.

Overexpression of human virus surface glycoprotein precursors induces cytosolic unfolded protein response in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Background

The expression of human virus surface proteins, as well as other mammalian glycoproteins, is much more efficient in cells of higher eukaryotes rather than yeasts. The limitations to high-level expression of active viral surface glycoproteins in yeast are not well understood. To identify possible bottlenecks we performed a detailed study on overexpression of recombinant mumps hemagglutinin-neuraminidase (MuHN) and measles hemagglutinin (MeH) in yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, combining the analysis of recombinant proteins with a proteomic approach.

Results

Overexpressed recombinant MuHN and MeH proteins were present in large aggregates, were inactive and totally insoluble under native conditions. Moreover, the majority of recombinant protein was found in immature form of non-glycosylated precursors. Fractionation of yeast lysates revealed that the core of viral surface protein aggregates consists of MuHN or MeH disulfide-linked multimers involving eukaryotic translation elongation factor 1A (eEF1A) and is closely associated with small heat shock proteins (sHsps) that can be removed only under denaturing conditions. Complexes of large Hsps seem to be bound to aggregate core peripherally as they can be easily removed at high salt concentrations. Proteomic analysis revealed that the accumulation of unglycosylated viral protein precursors results in specific cytosolic unfolded protein response (UPR-Cyto) in yeast cells, characterized by different action and regulation of small Hsps versus large chaperones of Hsp70, Hsp90 and Hsp110 families. In contrast to most environmental stresses, in the response to synthesis of recombinant MuHN and MeH, only the large Hsps were upregulated whereas sHsps were not. Interestingly, the amount of eEF1A was also increased during this stress response.

Conclusions

Inefficient translocation of MuHN and MeH precursors through ER membrane is a bottleneck for high-level expression in yeast. Overexpression of these recombinant proteins induces the UPR's cytosolic counterpart, the UPR-Cyto, which represent a subset of proteins involved in the heat-shock response. The involvement of eEF1A may explain the mechanism by which only large chaperones, but not small Hsps are upregulated during this stress response. Our study highlights important differences between viral surface protein expression in yeast and mammalian cells at the first stage of secretory pathway.

Targeting pathways of C-tail-anchored proteins

A large group of diverse, functionally important, and differently localized transmembrane proteins, share a particular membrane topology, consisting of a cytosolic N-terminal region, followed by a transmembrane domain close to the C-terminus. The C-terminal membrane anchor of these tail-anchored (TA) proteins generally represents the sole targeting determinant, and becomes available to targeting factors only after release of the finished polypeptide from the ribosome. Hence, TA proteins do not have a chance to interact co-translationally with Signal Recognition Particle and are delivered post-translationally to all target membranes, including the ER. Recent work has demonstrated the existence of different biogenetic pathways for TA proteins. Notably, some are able to efficiently translocate their C-terminus across protein-free bilayers without the participation of any membrane or cytosolic protein, while others require assistance from cytosolic chaperones and membrane receptors. In this review, we summarize current knowledge on the different insertion pathways, with emphasis on a recently discovered chaperone system that operates in fungi as well as in higher eukaryotes to deliver TA proteins to the ER (called Guided Entry of Tail-anchored Proteins (Get) system and Transmembrane Recognition Complex (TRC), in yeast and mammals, respectively). We suggest that the final insertion step of TA proteins does not require membrane proteins, but that different competing chaperone systems ensure precise delivery to defined targets while preventing inappropriate insertion into otherwise permissive bilayers. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled Protein translocation across or insertion into membranes.

The yeast ubiquitin-like domain protein Mdy2 is required for microtubule-directed nuclear migration and localizes to cytoplasmic granules in response to heat stress

MDY2 encodes a ubiquitin-like (UBL)-domain protein necessary for efficient mating in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Unlike most UBL proteins, Mdy2 is apparently not subject to C-terminal processing and is localized predominantly in the nucleus. Deletion of MDY2 is associated with a five- to seven-fold reduction in mating efficiency, mainly due to defects in nuclear migration and karyogamy at the prezygotic stage. Here, we looked for two potential interacting partners of Mdy2, investigated the function of Mdy2 in nuclear movement, determined the increased heat sensitivity defects of mdy2Δ mutants, and inspected localization of Mdy2. Coprecipitation studies show that Mdy2 associates with α-tubulin and with the microtubule (MT)-associated dynactin subunit p150(Glued)/Nip100. nip100Δ mutants exhibit no defects in nuclear migration or in MT length or orientation during shmooing growth. Deletion of MDY2 display small nuclear migration phenotype during vegetative growth and seems to exacerbate the defects in mitotic nuclear migration seen in the nip100Δ strain. Deletion of MDY2 increased heat sensitivity of the cells and these strains accumulate mitotic nuclear migration defects and shortened MTs under these conditions. GFP-Mdy2 proteins which are localized predominantly in the nucleus at permissive temperature are localized to cytoplasmic foci during heat shock. Colocalization studies revealed that heat stress-induced enrichment of Mdy2 in cytoplasmic foci merged mainly with stress granules marker Pab1. During glucose deprivation a minority of Mdy2 foci overlapped with P-bodies marker Dcp2, while most Mdy2 foci and Pab1 foci overlap. Accordingly, we propose that Mdy2 plays a critical role in the MT-dependent processes of karyogamy and stress response.

The role of p23, Hop, immunophilins, and other co-chaperones in regulating Hsp90 function

Molecular chaperones are a diverse group of highly conserved proteins that transiently interact with partially folded polypeptide chains during normal cellular processes, such as protein translation, translocation, and disassembly of protein complexes (1). Prior to folding or after denaturation, hydrophobic residues that are normally sequestered within a folded protein are exposed to the aqueous environment and are prone to aggregation or misfolding. Multiple classes of molecular chaperones, such as Hsp70s and Hsp40s, recognize and transiently bind polypeptides with exposed hydrophobic stretches in order to prevent misfolding. Other types of chaperones, such as Hsp90, have more specialized functions in that they appear to interact with only a subset of cellular proteins. This chapter focuses on the role of Hsp90 and partner co-chaperones in promoting the folding and activation of a diverse group of proteins with critical roles in cellular signaling and function.

The special delivery of a tail-anchored protein: why it pays to use a dedicated courier

The membrane-spanning C-terminal regions in tail-anchored proteins must be recognized and delivered posttranslationally to the endoplasmic reticulum or mitochondrial membrane. A paper in this issue of Molecular Cell (Wang et al., 2010) and another recent report (Mariappan et al., 2010) delineate early steps in this pathway.

A chaperone cascade sorts proteins for posttranslational membrane insertion into the endoplasmic reticulum

Tail-anchored (TA) proteins are posttranslationally inserted into either the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) or the mitochondrial outer membrane. The C-terminal transmembrane domains (TMDs) of TA proteins enable their many essential cellular functions by specifying the membrane target, but how cells process these targeting signals is poorly understood. Here, we reveal the composition of a conserved multiprotein TMD recognition complex (TRC) and show that distinct TRC subunits recognize the two types of TMD signals. By engineering mutations in a mitochondrial TMD, we switch over its TRC subunit recognition, thus leading to its misinsertion into the ER. Biochemical reconstitution with purified components demonstrates that TRC tethers and enzymatically activates Get3 to selectively hand off ER-bound TA proteins to Get3. Thus, ER-bound TA proteins are sorted at the top of a TMD chaperone cascade that culminates with the formation of Get3-TA protein complexes, which are recruited to the ER membrane for insertion.

Structural characterization of the Get4/Get5 complex and its interaction with Get3

The recently elucidated Get proteins are responsible for the targeted delivery of the majority of tail-anchored (TA) proteins to the endoplasmic reticulum. Get4 and Get5 have been identified in the early steps of the pathway mediating TA substrate delivery to the cytoplasmic targeting factor Get3. Here we report a crystal structure of Get4 and an N-terminal fragment of Get5 from Saccharomyces cerevisae. We show Get4 and Get5 (Get4/5) form an intimate complex that exists as a dimer (two copies of Get4/5) mediated by the C-terminus of Get5. We further demonstrate that Get3 specifically binds to a conserved surface on Get4 in a nucleotide dependent manner. This work provides further evidence for a model in which Get4/5 operates upstream of Get3 and mediates the specific delivery of a TA substrate.

Crystal structure of Get4-Get5 complex and its interactions with Sgt2, Get3, and Ydj1

Get3, Get4, and Get5 in Saccharomyces cerevisiae participate in the insertion of tail-anchored proteins into the endoplasmic reticulum membrane. We elucidated the interaction between Get4 and Get5 and investigated their interaction with Get3 and a tetratricopeptide repeat-containing protein, Sgt2. Based on co-immunoprecipitation and crystallographic studies, Get4 and Get5 formed a tight complex, suggesting that they constitute subunits of a larger complex. In contrast, although Get3 interacted physically with the Get4-Get5 complex, low amounts of Get3 co-precipitated with Get5, implying a transient interaction between Get3 and Get4-Get5. Sgt2 also interacted with Get5, although the amount of Sgt2 that co-precipitated with Get5 varied. Moreover, GET3, GET4, and GET5 interacted genetically with molecular chaperone YDJ1, suggesting that chaperones might also be involved in the insertion of tail-anchored proteins.

Biogenesis of tail-anchored proteins: the beginning for the end?

Tail-anchored proteins are a distinct class of integral membrane proteins located in several eukaryotic organelles, where they perform a diverse range of functions. These proteins have in common the C-terminal location of their transmembrane anchor and the resulting post-translational nature of their membrane insertion, which, unlike the co-translational membrane insertion of most other proteins, is not coupled to ongoing protein synthesis. The study of tail-anchored proteins has provided a paradigm for understanding the components and pathways that mediate post-translational biogenesis of membrane proteins at the endoplasmic reticulum. In this Commentary, we review recent studies that have converged at a consensus regarding the molecular mechanisms that underlie this process--namely, that multiple pathways underlie the biogenesis of tail-anchored proteins at the endoplasmic reticulum.

Interaction of Hsp70 with p49/STRAP, a serum response factor binding protein

Members of the Hsp70 protein family must work with other co-chaperones to exert their function. Herein, we identified a new Hsp70 co-chaperone, p49/STRAP, previously shown to interact with serum response factor. We demonstrated that a fraction of p49/STRAP was cytosolic, and that it interacted with the beta-sandwich domain of Hsp70. Although p49/STRAP had little effect on the intrinsic ATPase activity of Hsp70, it reduced the ATP-hydrolytic activity of Hsp70 stimulated by Hsp40, and inhibited the refolding activity of the Hsp70/Hsp40 system. Thus, p49/STRAP can be considered a bona fide co-chaperone of Hsp70.

The Schizosaccharomyces pombe Hsp104 disaggregase is unable to propagate the [PSI] prion

The molecular chaperone Hsp104 is a crucial factor in the acquisition of thermotolerance in yeast. Under stress conditions, the disaggregase activity of Hsp104 facilitates the reactivation of misfolded proteins. Hsp104 is also involved in the propagation of fungal prions. For instance, the well-characterized [PSI⁺] prion of Saccharomyces cerevisiae does not propagate in Δhsp104 cells or in cells overexpressing Hsp104. In this study, we characterized the functional homolog of Hsp104 from Schizosaccharomyces pombe (Sp_Hsp104). As its S. cerevisiae counterpart, Sp_hsp104⁺ is heat-inducible and required for thermotolerance in S. pombe. Sp_Hsp104 displays low disaggregase activity and cannot propagate the [PSI⁺] prion in S. cerevisiae. When overexpressed in S. cerevisiae, Sp_Hsp104 confers thermotolerance to Δhsp104 cells and reactivates heat-aggregated proteins. However, overexpression of Sp_Hsp104 does not propagate nor eliminate [PSI⁺]. Strikingly, [PSI⁺] was cured by overexpression of a chimeric chaperone bearing the C-terminal domain (CTD) of the S. cerevisiae Hsp104 protein. Our study demonstrates that the ability to untangle aggregated proteins is conserved between the S. pombe and S. cerevisiae Hsp104 homologs, and points to a role of the CTD in the propagation of the S. cerevisiae [PSI⁺] prion.