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Huo M, Ye J, Zhang Y, Wang M, Zhang J, Feng ST, Cai H, Zhong B, Dong Z. Quantitative assessment of brown adipose tissue whitening in a high-fat-diet murine model using synthetic magnetic resonance imaging. Heliyon 2024; 10:e27314. [PMID: 38509886 PMCID: PMC10950491 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e27314] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2023] [Revised: 02/17/2024] [Accepted: 02/27/2024] [Indexed: 03/22/2024] Open
Abstract
Purpose This study aimed to quantitatively evaluate the whitening process of brown adipose tissue (BAT) in mice using synthetic magnetic resonance imaging (SyMRI) and analyzed the correlation between SyMRI quantitative measurements of BAT and serum lipid profiles. Methods Fifteen C57BL/6 mice were divided into three groups and fed different diets as follows: normal chow diet for 12 weeks, NCD group; high-fat diet (HFD) for 12 weeks, HFD-12w group; and HFD for 36 weeks, HFD-36w group. Mice were scanned using 3.0 T SyMRI. T1 and T2 values of BAT and interscapular BAT (iBAT) volume were measured. After sacrifice, the body weight of mice, lipid profiles, BAT morphology, and uncoupling protein 1 (UCP1) levels were determined. Statistical analysis was performed using one-way analysis of variance or Kruskal-Wallis test followed by Bonferroni correction for pairwise comparisons. Bonferroni-adjusted significance level was set at P < 0.017 (alpha: 0.05/3 = 0.017). Results T2 values of BAT in the HFD-12w group were significantly higher than those in the NCD group (P < 0.001), and those in the HFD-36w group were significantly higher than those in the other two groups (both P < 0.001). The iBAT volume in the HFD-36w group was significantly higher than that in the HFD-12w (P = 0.013) and NCD groups (P = 0.005). T2 values of BAT and iBAT volume were significantly correlated with serum lipid profiles and mouse body weight. Conclusions SyMRI can noninvasively evaluate the whitening process of BAT using T2 values and iBAT volume, thereby facilitating the visualization of the whitening process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mengjuan Huo
- Department of Radiology, The First Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, 58th, The Second Zhongshan Road, Guangzhou 510080, China
- Department of Radiology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, 111 Dade Road, Yuexiu District, Guangzhou 510120, China
| | - Junzhao Ye
- Department of Gastroenterology, The First Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, 58th, The Second Zhongshan Road, Guangzhou 510080, China
| | - Yinhong Zhang
- Department of Radiology, The First Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, 58th, The Second Zhongshan Road, Guangzhou 510080, China
| | - Meng Wang
- Department of Radiology, The First Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, 58th, The Second Zhongshan Road, Guangzhou 510080, China
| | - Jialu Zhang
- MRI Research, GE Healthcare, Beijing 10076, China
| | - Shi-Ting Feng
- Department of Radiology, The First Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, 58th, The Second Zhongshan Road, Guangzhou 510080, China
| | - Huasong Cai
- Department of Radiology, The First Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, 58th, The Second Zhongshan Road, Guangzhou 510080, China
| | - Bihui Zhong
- Department of Gastroenterology, The First Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, 58th, The Second Zhongshan Road, Guangzhou 510080, China
| | - Zhi Dong
- Department of Radiology, The First Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, 58th, The Second Zhongshan Road, Guangzhou 510080, China
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Zhu Y, Liu W, Qi Z. Adipose tissue browning and thermogenesis under physiologically energetic challenges: a remodelled thermogenic system. J Physiol 2024; 602:23-48. [PMID: 38019069 DOI: 10.1113/jp285269] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2023] [Accepted: 11/16/2023] [Indexed: 11/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Metabolic diseases such as obesity and diabetes are often thought to be caused by reduced energy expenditure, which poses a serious threat to human health. Cold exposure, exercise and caloric restriction have been shown to promote adipose tissue browning and thermogenesis. These physiological interventions increase energy expenditure and thus have emerged as promising strategies for mitigating metabolic disorders. However, that increased adipose tissue browning and thermogenesis elevate thermogenic consumption is not a reasonable explanation when humans and animals confront energetic challenges imposed by these interventions. In this review, we collected numerous results on adipose tissue browning and whitening and evaluated this bi-directional conversion of adipocytes from the perspective of energy homeostasis. Here, we propose a new interpretation of the role of adipose tissue browning under energetic challenges: increased adipose tissue browning and thermogenesis under energy challenge is not to enhance energy expenditure, but to reestablish a more economical thermogenic pattern to maintain the core body temperature. This can be achieved by enhancing the contribution of non-shivering thermogenesis (adipose tissue browning and thermogenesis) and lowering shivering thermogenesis and high intensity shivering. Consequently, the proportion of heat production in fat increases and that in skeletal muscle decreases, enabling skeletal muscle to devote more energy reserves to overcoming environmental stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yupeng Zhu
- The Key Laboratory of Adolescent Health Assessment and Exercise Intervention (Ministry of Education), East China Normal University, Shanghai, China
- School of Physical Education and Health, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China
- Sino-French Joint Research Center of Sport Science, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China
| | - Weina Liu
- The Key Laboratory of Adolescent Health Assessment and Exercise Intervention (Ministry of Education), East China Normal University, Shanghai, China
- School of Physical Education and Health, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China
| | - Zhengtang Qi
- The Key Laboratory of Adolescent Health Assessment and Exercise Intervention (Ministry of Education), East China Normal University, Shanghai, China
- School of Physical Education and Health, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China
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McCormack NM, Nguyen NY, Tully CB, Oliver T, Fiorillo AA, Heier CR. Vamorolone improves Becker muscular dystrophy and increases dystrophin protein in bmx model mice. iScience 2023; 26:107161. [PMID: 37534133 PMCID: PMC10391915 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2023.107161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2023] [Revised: 05/15/2023] [Accepted: 06/13/2023] [Indexed: 08/04/2023] Open
Abstract
There is no approved therapy for Becker muscular dystrophy (BMD), a genetic muscle disease caused by in-frame dystrophin deletions. We previously developed the dissociative corticosteroid vamorolone for treatment of the allelic, dystrophin-null disease Duchenne muscular dystrophy. We hypothesize vamorolone can treat BMD by safely reducing inflammatory signaling in muscle and through a novel mechanism of increasing dystrophin protein via suppression of dystrophin-targeting miRNAs. Here, we test this in the bmx mouse model of BMD. Daily oral treatment with vamorolone or prednisolone improves bmx grip strength and hang time phenotypes. Both drugs reduce myofiber size and decrease the percentage of centrally nucleated fibers. Vamorolone shows improved safety versus prednisolone by avoiding or reducing key side effects to behavior and growth. Intriguingly, vamorolone increases dystrophin protein in both heart and skeletal muscle. These data indicate that vamorolone, nearing approval for Duchenne, shows efficacy in bmx mice and therefore warrants clinical investigation in BMD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nikki M. McCormack
- Center for Genetic Medicine Research, Children’s National Hospital, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Nhu Y. Nguyen
- Center for Genetic Medicine Research, Children’s National Hospital, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Christopher B. Tully
- Center for Genetic Medicine Research, Children’s National Hospital, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Trinitee Oliver
- Center for Genetic Medicine Research, Children’s National Hospital, Washington, DC, USA
- Department of Biology, Howard University, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Alyson A. Fiorillo
- Center for Genetic Medicine Research, Children’s National Hospital, Washington, DC, USA
- Department of Genomics and Precision Medicine, The George Washington University, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Christopher R. Heier
- Center for Genetic Medicine Research, Children’s National Hospital, Washington, DC, USA
- Department of Genomics and Precision Medicine, The George Washington University, Washington, DC, USA
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Martín FM, Alzamendi A, Harnichar AE, Castrogiovanni D, Zubiría MG, Spinedi E, Giovambattista A. Role of glucocorticoid receptor (GR) in white adipose tissue beiging. Life Sci 2023; 322:121681. [PMID: 37040814 DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2023.121681] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2022] [Revised: 01/27/2023] [Accepted: 04/04/2023] [Indexed: 04/13/2023]
Abstract
AIM Glucocorticoids (GCs) play a crucial role in energy homeostasis including white adipose tissue function; however, chronic GC excess is detrimental to mammals' health. White hypertrophic adiposity is a main factor for neuroendocrine-metabolic dysfunctions in monosodium L-glutamate (MSG)-damaged hypercorticosteronemic rat. Nevertheless, little is known about the receptor path in endogenous GC impact on white adipose tissue-resident precursor cells to bring them into beige lineage. Thus, our aim was to explore whether transient/chronic endogenous hypercorticosteronemia affects browning capacity in white adipose tissue pads from MSG rats during development. MAIN METHODS Control and MSG male rats aged 30 and 90 days were 7-day exposed to cold conditions in order to stimulate wet white epidydimal adipose tissue (wEAT) beiging capacity. This procedure was also replicated in adrenalectomized rats. KEY FINDINGS Data indicated that whereas epidydimal white adipose tissue pads from prepubertal hypercorticosteronemic rats retained full expression of GR/MR genes resulting in a drastic reduction in wEAT beiging capacity, conversely, chronic hypercorticosteronemic adult MSG rats developed down-regulation of corticoid genes (and reduced GR cytosolic mediators) in wEAT pads and consequently partially restored local beiging capacity. Finally, wEAT pads from adrenalectomized rats revealed up-regulation of GR gene accompanied by full local beiging capacity. SIGNIFICANCE This study strongly supports a GR-dependent inhibitory effect of GC excess on white adipose tissue browning, an issue strongly supporting a key role of GR in the non-shivering thermogenic process. As a consequence, normalizing the GC milieu could be a relevant factor to handle dysmetabolism in white hyperadipose phenotypes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Florencia M Martín
- Centro de Endocrinología Experimental y Aplicada (CENEXA, UNLP-CONICET-CICPBA-CA), Facultad de Ciencias Médicas, Universidad Nacional de La Plata, 1900 La Plata, Argentina; Laboratorio de Neuroendocrinología, Instituto Multidisciplinario de Biología Celular (IMBICE, CICPBA-CONICET-UNLP), 1900 La Plata, Argentina
| | - Ana Alzamendi
- Laboratorio de Neuroendocrinología, Instituto Multidisciplinario de Biología Celular (IMBICE, CICPBA-CONICET-UNLP), 1900 La Plata, Argentina
| | - Alejandro E Harnichar
- Laboratorio de Neuroendocrinología, Instituto Multidisciplinario de Biología Celular (IMBICE, CICPBA-CONICET-UNLP), 1900 La Plata, Argentina
| | - Daniel Castrogiovanni
- Laboratorio de Neuroendocrinología, Instituto Multidisciplinario de Biología Celular (IMBICE, CICPBA-CONICET-UNLP), 1900 La Plata, Argentina
| | - María Guillermina Zubiría
- Laboratorio de Neuroendocrinología, Instituto Multidisciplinario de Biología Celular (IMBICE, CICPBA-CONICET-UNLP), 1900 La Plata, Argentina
| | - Eduardo Spinedi
- Centro de Endocrinología Experimental y Aplicada (CENEXA, UNLP-CONICET-CICPBA-CA), Facultad de Ciencias Médicas, Universidad Nacional de La Plata, 1900 La Plata, Argentina.
| | - Andrés Giovambattista
- Laboratorio de Neuroendocrinología, Instituto Multidisciplinario de Biología Celular (IMBICE, CICPBA-CONICET-UNLP), 1900 La Plata, Argentina
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Ziqubu K, Dludla PV, Mthembu SXH, Nkambule BB, Mabhida SE, Jack BU, Nyambuya TM, Mazibuko-Mbeje SE. An insight into brown/beige adipose tissue whitening, a metabolic complication of obesity with the multifactorial origin. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2023; 14:1114767. [PMID: 36875450 PMCID: PMC9978510 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2023.1114767] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2022] [Accepted: 02/06/2023] [Indexed: 02/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Brown adipose tissue (BAT), a thermoregulatory organ known to promote energy expenditure, has been extensively studied as a potential avenue to combat obesity. Although BAT is the opposite of white adipose tissue (WAT) which is responsible for energy storage, BAT shares thermogenic capacity with beige adipose tissue that emerges from WAT depots. This is unsurprising as both BAT and beige adipose tissue display a huge difference from WAT in terms of their secretory profile and physiological role. In obesity, the content of BAT and beige adipose tissue declines as these tissues acquire the WAT characteristics via the process called "whitening". This process has been rarely explored for its implication in obesity, whether it contributes to or exacerbates obesity. Emerging research has demonstrated that BAT/beige adipose tissue whitening is a sophisticated metabolic complication of obesity that is linked to multiple factors. The current review provides clarification on the influence of various factors such as diet, age, genetics, thermoneutrality, and chemical exposure on BAT/beige adipose tissue whitening. Moreover, the defects and mechanisms that underpin the whitening are described. Notably, the BAT/beige adipose tissue whitening can be marked by the accumulation of large unilocular lipid droplets, mitochondrial degeneration, and collapsed thermogenic capacity, by the virtue of mitochondrial dysfunction, devascularization, autophagy, and inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Khanyisani Ziqubu
- Department of Biochemistry, North-West University, Mmabatho, South Africa
| | - Phiwayinkosi V. Dludla
- Biomedical Research and Innovation Platform, South African Medical Research Council, Tygerberg, South Africa
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Faculty of Science and Agriculture, University of Zululand, KwaDlangezwa, South Africa
| | - Sinenhlanhla X. H. Mthembu
- Department of Biochemistry, North-West University, Mmabatho, South Africa
- Biomedical Research and Innovation Platform, South African Medical Research Council, Tygerberg, South Africa
| | - Bongani B. Nkambule
- School of Laboratory Medicine and Medical Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa
| | - Sihle E. Mabhida
- Biomedical Research and Innovation Platform, South African Medical Research Council, Tygerberg, South Africa
| | - Babalwa U. Jack
- Biomedical Research and Innovation Platform, South African Medical Research Council, Tygerberg, South Africa
| | - Tawanda M. Nyambuya
- Department of Health Sciences, Faculty of Health and Applied Sciences, Namibia University of Science and Technology, Windhoek, Namibia
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Nishiyama M, Iwasaki Y, Makino S. Animal Models of Cushing's Syndrome. Endocrinology 2022; 163:6761324. [PMID: 36240318 DOI: 10.1210/endocr/bqac173] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Endogenous Cushing's syndrome is characterized by unique clinical features and comorbidities, and progress in the analysis of its genetic pathogenesis has been achieved. Moreover, prescribed glucocorticoids are also associated with exogenous Cushing's syndrome. Several animal models have been established to explore the pathophysiology and develop treatments for Cushing's syndrome. Here, we review recent studies reporting animal models of Cushing's syndrome with different features and complications induced by glucocorticoid excess. Exogenous corticosterone (CORT) administration in drinking water is widely utilized, and we found that CORT pellet implantation in mice successfully leads to a Cushing's phenotype. Corticotropin-releasing hormone overexpression mice and adrenal-specific Prkar1a-deficient mice have been developed, and AtT20 transplantation methods have been designed to examine the medical treatments for adrenocorticotropic hormone-producing pituitary neuroendocrine tumors. We also review recent advances in the molecular pathogenesis of glucocorticoid-induced complications using animal models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mitsuru Nishiyama
- Health Care Center, Kochi University, Kochi city, Kochi 780-8520, Japan
- Department of Endocrinology, Metabolism and Nephrology, Kochi Medical School, Kochi University, Nankoku city, Kochi 783-8505, Japan
| | - Yasumasa Iwasaki
- Department of Endocrinology, Metabolism and Nephrology, Kochi Medical School, Kochi University, Nankoku city, Kochi 783-8505, Japan
- Department of Clinical Nutrition, Faculty of Health Science, Suzuka University of Medical Science, Suzuka city, Mie 510-0293Japan
| | - Shinya Makino
- Department of Endocrinology, Metabolism and Nephrology, Kochi Medical School, Kochi University, Nankoku city, Kochi 783-8505, Japan
- Department of Internal Medicine, Osaka Gyomeikan Hospital, Osaka city, Osaka 554-0012Japan
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Dexamethasone-Induced Adipose Tissue Redistribution and Metabolic Changes: Is Gene Expression the Main Factor? An Animal Model of Chronic Hypercortisolism. Biomedicines 2022; 10:biomedicines10092328. [PMID: 36140428 PMCID: PMC9496558 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines10092328] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2022] [Revised: 09/03/2022] [Accepted: 09/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Chronic hypercortisolism has been associated with the development of several metabolic alterations, mostly caused by the effects of chronic glucocorticoid (GC) exposure over gene expression. The metabolic changes can be partially explained by the GC actions on different adipose tissues (ATs), leading to central obesity. In this regard, we aimed to characterize an experimental model of iatrogenic hypercortisolism in rats with significant AT redistribution. Male Wistar rats were distributed into control (CT) and GC-treated, which received dexamethasone sodium phosphate (0.5 mg/kg/day) by an osmotic minipump, for 4 weeks. GC-treated rats reproduced several characteristics observed in human hypercortisolism/Cushing’s syndrome, such as HPA axis inhibition, glucose intolerance, insulin resistance, dyslipidemia, hepatic lipid accumulation, and AT redistribution. There was an increase in the mesenteric (meWAT), perirenal (prWAT), and interscapular brown (BAT) ATs mass, but a reduction of the retroperitoneal (rpWAT) mass compared to CT rats. Overexpressed lipolytic and lipogenic gene profiles were observed in white adipose tissue (WAT) of GC rats as BAT dysfunction and whitening. The AT remodeling in response to GC excess showed more importance than the increase of AT mass per se, and it cannot be explained just by GC regulation of gene transcription.
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Koorneef LL, van der Meulen M, Kooijman S, Sánchez-López E, Scheerstra JF, Voorhoeve MC, Ramesh ANN, Rensen PCN, Giera M, Kroon J, Meijer OC. Dexamethasone-associated metabolic effects in male mice are partially caused by depletion of endogenous corticosterone. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2022; 13:960279. [PMID: 36034417 PMCID: PMC9399852 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2022.960279] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2022] [Accepted: 07/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Synthetic glucocorticoids are clinically used to treat auto-immune and inflammatory disease. Despite the high efficacy, glucocorticoid treatments causes side effects such as obesity and insulin resistance in many patients. Via their pharmacological target, the glucocorticoid receptor (GR), glucocorticoids suppress endogenous glucocorticoid secretion. Endogenous, but not synthetic, glucocorticoids activate the mineralocorticoid receptor (MR) and side effects of synthetic glucocorticoids may thus not only result from GR hyperactivation but also from MR hypoactivation. Here, we tested the hypothesis that reactivation of MR with corticosterone add-on treatment can attenuate the metabolic effects of the synthetic glucocorticoid dexamethasone. Male 8-week-old C57Bl/6J mice received a high-fat diet supplemented with dexamethasone or vehicle, and were subcutaneously implanted with low-dose corticosterone- or vehicle-containing pellets. Dexamethasone strongly reduced body weight and fat mass gain, while corticosterone add-on partially normalized this. Dexamethasone-induced hyperglycemia and hyperinsulinemia were exacerbated by corticosterone add-on, which was prevented by MR antagonism. In subcutaneous white adipose tissue, corticosterone add-on prevented the dexamethasone-induced expression of intracellular lipolysis genes. In brown adipose tissue, dexamethasone also upregulated gene expression of brown adipose tissue identity markers, lipid transporters and lipolysis enzymes, which was prevented by corticosterone add-on. In conclusion, corticosterone add-on treatment prevents several, while exacerbating other metabolic effects of dexamethasone. While the exact role of MR remains elusive, this study suggests that corticosterone suppression by dexamethasone contributes to its effects in mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa L. Koorneef
- Department of Medicine, Division of Endocrinology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, Netherlands
- Einthoven Laboratory for Experimental Vascular Medicine, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, Netherlands
| | - Merel van der Meulen
- Department of Medicine, Division of Endocrinology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, Netherlands
- Einthoven Laboratory for Experimental Vascular Medicine, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, Netherlands
| | - Sander Kooijman
- Department of Medicine, Division of Endocrinology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, Netherlands
- Einthoven Laboratory for Experimental Vascular Medicine, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, Netherlands
| | - Elena Sánchez-López
- Center for Proteomics and Metabolomics, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, Netherlands
| | - Jari F. Scheerstra
- Department of Medicine, Division of Endocrinology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, Netherlands
- Einthoven Laboratory for Experimental Vascular Medicine, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, Netherlands
| | - Maaike C. Voorhoeve
- Department of Medicine, Division of Endocrinology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, Netherlands
- Einthoven Laboratory for Experimental Vascular Medicine, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, Netherlands
| | - Ajith N. Nadamuni Ramesh
- Department of Medicine, Division of Endocrinology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, Netherlands
- Einthoven Laboratory for Experimental Vascular Medicine, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, Netherlands
| | - Patrick C. N. Rensen
- Department of Medicine, Division of Endocrinology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, Netherlands
- Einthoven Laboratory for Experimental Vascular Medicine, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, Netherlands
| | - Martin Giera
- Center for Proteomics and Metabolomics, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, Netherlands
| | - Jan Kroon
- Department of Medicine, Division of Endocrinology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, Netherlands
- Einthoven Laboratory for Experimental Vascular Medicine, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, Netherlands
| | - Onno C. Meijer
- Department of Medicine, Division of Endocrinology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, Netherlands
- Einthoven Laboratory for Experimental Vascular Medicine, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, Netherlands
- *Correspondence: Onno C. Meijer,
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