Serum FSH level below 10 mIU/mL at twelve years old is an index of spontaneous and cyclical menstruation in Turner syndrome

Navigating fertility dilemmas across the lifespan in girls with Turner syndrome-a scoping review

BACKGROUND

Girls with Turner syndrome (TS) lack a partial or complete sex chromosome, which causes an accelerated decline of their ovarian reserve. Girls have to deal with several dilemmas related to their fertility, while only a limited number of them are referred to a fertility specialist and counselled about options of family planning on time.

OBJECTIVE AND RATIONALE

This scoping review provides an update of the literature on fertility in girls with TS throughout their lifespan and aims to propose a clinical practice guideline on fertility in TS.

SEARCH METHODS

Databases of PubMed, Embase, and Web of science were searched using the following key terms: Turner syndrome, fertility, puberty, pregnancy, sex-hormones, karyotype, fertility preservation, assisted reproductive techniques, and counselling, alongside relevant subject headings and synonymous terms. English language articles published since 2007 were critically reviewed. Pregnancies after using donated oocytes and data about girls with TS with Y-chromosomal content were excluded.

OUTCOMES

This search identified 1269 studies of which 120 were extracted for the review. The prevalence of natural conception ranged from 15% to 48% in women with 45,X/46,XX, 1% to 3% in women with 45,X, and 4% to 9% in women with other TS karyotypes. When assessing a girl's fertility potential, it was crucial to determine the karyotype in two cell lines, because hidden mosaicism may exist. In addition to karyotype, assessment of anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH) played a significant role in estimating ovarian function. Girls with AMH above the detection limit were most likely to experience spontaneous thelarche, menarche, and ongoing ovarian function during the reproductive lifespan. Fertility preservation became more routine practice: vitrification of oocytes was reported in 58 girls with TS and a median of five oocytes were preserved per stimulation. Ovarian tissue cryopreservation has demonstrated the presence of follicles in approximately 30% of girls with TS, mostly in girls with mosaic-TS, spontaneous puberty, and AMH above the detection limit. Although girls and their parents appreciated receiving counselling on fertility in TS, only one in ten girls with TS received specialized counselling. Unfamiliarity with fertility preservation techniques or uncertainties regarding the eligibility of a girl for fertility preservation constituted barriers for healthcare professionals when discussing fertility with girls with TS.

WIDER IMPLICATIONS

There currently is a high demand for fertility preservation techniques in girls with TS. A reliable prognostic model to determine which girls with TS might benefit from fertility preservation is lacking. Only a minority of these girls received comprehensive fertility counselling on the full spectrum of fertility, including uncertainties of fertility preservation, pregnancy risks, and alternatives, such as adoption. Fertility preservation could be a viable option for girls with TS. However, the question remains whether enough oocytes can be obtained for a realistic prospect of a live birth. It is important that girls and parents are empowered with the necessary information to make a well-informed decision.

Reproductive health in Turner's syndrome: from puberty to pregnancy

Turner syndrome (TS) is a genetic pathology that affects about 1/2500 newborn females. Turner's syndrome is characterized by highly variable genetic anomalies that consist in a partial or complete deletion of the X sexual chromosome; it can be present as a monosomy or as a mosaicism with two o three different cellular lines. 50% of the patients with Turner's syndrome has a 45 XO karyotype while the remaining cases have karyotypes with mosaicism or X isochromosome or with partial or whole Y chromosome. This pathology is characterized by multiple anomalies that involve physical and cognitive development and in particular endocrine, cardiovascular, reproductive, auditive and visual systems. Integrity of the X chromosome in essential for fertility. In TS is accelerated germ cells apoptosis. About 30% of TS girls have some pubertal development, 10-20% undergo menarche and 2-8% go through spontaneous pregnancy. Women with TS should be informed about the risk of premature menopause and should be referred, if possible, to a specialist evaluation with a doctor expert in assisted reproductive techniques. In adolescents and in adults, Premature Ovarian Insufficiency (POI) can be evaluated clinically and biochemically with the classic combination of amenorrhea and elevated FSH concentrations (hypergonadotropic hypogonadism). However, in postpubertal adolescents and adult women, reproductive hormones may remain within the normal range before POI is clinically evident, despite significant depletion of the ovarian reserve. Today, reproductive medicine offers the opportunity of fertility preservation in women with premature ovarian insufficiency (POI). Two techniques have been suggested such as ovarian cortex cryopreservation and oocytes cryopreservation.

Pubertal induction in Turner syndrome without gonadal function: A possibility of earlier, lower-dose estrogen therapy

Delayed and absent puberty and infertility in Turner syndrome (TS) are caused by primary hypogonadism. A majority of patients with TS who are followed at hospitals during childhood will not experience regular menstruation. In fact, almost all patients with TS need estrogen replacement therapy (ERT) before they are young adults. ERT in TS is administered empirically. However, some practical issues concerning puberty induction in TS require clarification, such as how early to start ERT. The present monograph aims to review current pubertal induction therapies for TS without endogenous estrogen production and suggests a new therapeutic approach using a transdermal estradiol patch that mimics incremental increases in circulating, physiological estradiol. Although evidence supporting this approach is still scarce, pubertal induction with earlier, lower-dose estrogen therapy more closely approximates endogenous estradiol secretion.

Questions concerning fertility preservation during transition in girls with Turner syndrome: review of the literature

Loss of fertility is one of the most important concerns facing Turner syndrome (TS) patients as they transition into adult health care. Due to the limited and rapidly decreasing ovarian reserve, many TS patients require fertility preservation (FP) techniques to preserve their reproductive potential until they are ready to pursue procreation. One has to also remember about the additional risks connected with pregnancy in TS patients. In order to determine the optimal time for introducing FP techniques and decrease the chance of an unnecessary intervention, markers and procedures assessing ovarian reserve have been developed. The exposure to potential cardiovascular complications should be determined before FP to avoid unnecessary procedures in patients with potential contraindications to pregnancy. The aim of the present review is to answer the following three questions important for successful preservation of fertility and safe pregnancy in TS: which markers of ovarian reserve should be used as selection criteria for FP? Which methods of FP are the safest and most effective? Are there any cardiovascular contraindications to FP? For each of those questions, separate literature searches have been conducted. A total of 86 articles have been included in this review: 34 for the first question, 35 for the second, and 17 for the third. Ovarian reserve markers and cardiovascular contraindications to pregnancy should be established before FP; hoverer, there are no unambiguous indicators as to which patients should be disqualified from the FP and more evidence is needed in this subject.

The effects of estrogen induction therapy on pubertal presentations in turner syndrome patients

OBJECTIVE

In this study, we investigated various pubertal presentations and progressions before and after estrogen induction therapy and the correlations with Turner syndrome karyotypes.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We reviewed the medical records of patients with Turner syndrome diagnosed before the age of 18 years between 2000 and 2019. Sixty-six patients were enrolled and distributed into 45,X monosomy group, X chromosome structural abnormalities group and X mosaicism group. The pubertal presentations were classified into spontaneous puberty, arrested puberty and no spontaneous puberty. All patients' karyotypes, pubertal progressions and laboratory data were collected and analyzed.

RESULTS

The karyotypes were highly correlated with pubertal presentations. No spontaneous puberty was noticed in 58.3% 45,X monosomy patients, 50% patients with X chromosome structural abnormalities had arrested puberty, whereas 70% patients with X mosaicism had spontaneous puberty. Estrogen induction therapy in patients with no spontaneous puberty could induce puberty and the tempo of puberty may approximate to the spontaneous puberty group (median, 2.3 vs. 2.2 years, P = 0.95). In both interventional groups, the FSH level was distinguishable before treatment (median, 65.1 vs. 100.4 mIU/mL, P = 0.02). After long term estrogen therapy, the FSH could be suppressed to similar level in both interventional groups (median, 37.5 vs 34.5 mIU/mL, P = 0.84). Neither LH nor E2 level provided valuable information before and after treatment.

CONCLUSION

The karyotypes were highly correlated with pubertal presentations at Turner syndrome patients. The integrity of 2nd X chromosome plays an important role. Low dose estrogen could mimic the tempo of puberty even delay induction age at Taiwan. The FSH data could provide predictive information of pubertal induction for both interventional groups.

Pubertal induction and transition to adult sex hormone replacement in patients with congenital pituitary or gonadal reproductive hormone deficiency: an Endo-ERN clinical practice guideline

An Endo-European Reference Network guideline initiative was launched including 16 clinicians experienced in endocrinology, pediatric and adult and 2 patient representatives. The guideline was endorsed by the European Society for Pediatric Endocrinology, the European Society for Endocrinology and the European Academy of Andrology. The aim was to create practice guidelines for clinical assessment and puberty induction in individuals with congenital pituitary or gonadal hormone deficiency. A systematic literature search was conducted, and the evidence was graded according to the Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development and Evaluation system. If the evidence was insufficient or lacking, then the conclusions were based on expert opinion. The guideline includes recommendations for puberty induction with oestrogen or testosterone. Publications on the induction of puberty with follicle-stimulation hormone and human chorionic gonadotrophin in hypogonadotropic hypogonadism are reviewed. Specific issues in individuals with Klinefelter syndrome or androgen insensitivity syndrome are considered. The expert panel recommends that pubertal induction or sex hormone replacement to sustain puberty should be cared for by a multidisciplinary team. Children with a known condition should be followed from the age of 8 years for girls and 9 years for boys. Puberty induction should be individualised but considered at 11 years in girls and 12 years in boys. Psychological aspects of puberty and fertility issues are especially important to address in individuals with sex development disorders or congenital pituitary deficiencies. The transition of these young adults highlights the importance of a multidisciplinary approach, to discuss both medical issues and social and psychological issues that arise in the context of these chronic conditions.

Perspectives on growth promoting treatment for patients with Turner syndrome in Japan

In Japan, anabolic steroid hormone (ASH) treatment for Turner syndrome (TS) to promote growth had been provided before GH therapy for TS was approved. ASH effectively improved the adult height (AH) of TS patients without spontaneous puberty but decreased the AH of TS patients with spontaneous puberty. Although GH therapy for TS was approved in 1991, the approved dosage remained 0.5 IU/kg/wk for GH-deficient TS patients and improved AH by approximately 7 cm. However, AH did not reach -2 standard deviations in healthy girls. In 1999, the requirement of GH deficiency was removed and a dose of 1.0 IU/kg/wk was approved. Although an increase in AH was expected, no reports showed significant improvements in AH at a high dose of GH. GH + ASH combination therapy was reevaluated and recommended for TS patients with gonadal failure and an extremely short stature or those who respond poorly to GH therapy. Although early estrogen replacement therapy is recommended to improve psychological quality of life and prevent osteoporosis, it lowered AH even at a low dose of ethinyl estradiol (25 ng/kg/d). The initiation of ethynyl estradiol at an extremely low dose (1-5 ng/kg/d) at a relatively young age successfully improved AH.

Turner Syndrome Systematic Review: Spontaneous Thelarche and Menarche Stratified by Karyotype

BACKGROUND

Girls with Turner syndrome (TS) have a high incidence of primary ovarian insufficiency. Recent data show rates of spontaneous thelarche (ST) of 38% and spontaneous menarche (SM) of 15-16%, with higher rates in those with mosaicism.

SUMMARY

We systematically reviewed the literature for evidence regarding rates of ST and SM in TS and evaluated rates based on the type of chromosomal mosaicism. We searched MEDLINE via PubMed, Embase, and the Cochrane Database of Controlled Trials. Reference lists were screened. Studies reporting outcomes of ST and SM in girls with TS, diagnosed by genetic analysis, were included. Data was collected regarding study design, cohort type, cohort age, the number of participants with ST and SM, the individual age at diagnosis of ST and SM, the mean age of patients with ST and SM, sample size, the number of participants with secondary amenorrhea, and karyotype. Key Messages: In total 2,699 patients were assessed for ST and 2,890 for SM from 43 articles. Overall the rates of ST were 32% (95% CI 26.4-38.9) and SM 20.8% (95% CI 19.3-22.4). Girls with X monosomy had the lowest rates of ST (i.e., 13%; 95% CI 8.7-19.7) and SM (i.e., 9.1%; 95% CI 7.3-11.3). Girls with 45,X/47,XXX had the highest rates of ST (i.e., 88.1%; 95% CI 62-97.1) and SM (i.e., 66.2%; 95% CI 49.3-79.6).

CONCLUSIONS

Rates of ST and SM differ by karyotype in TS. When counseling patients, the karyotype should strongly influence discussions regarding pubertal development and the future reproductive potential.

Ultra-low-dose estrogen therapy for female hypogonadism

In females, endogenous estrogen secretion increases gradually before pubertal development. The benefits of low-dose estrogen therapy in patients with Turner syndrome were originally discussed by Ross et al. and Quigley et al. These seminal studies used ethinyl estradiol (EE2), starting at a dose of 25 ng/kg/d. We hypothesized that the initial dosage of estrogen could be titrated to more closely mimic physiological increments of endogenous estrogen. Therefore, our recent study initiated EE2 treatment at a dosage of 1–2 ng/kg/d, an ultra-low-dose estrogen therapy in pediatric patients with Turner syndrome. The ultra-low-dose estrogen therapy in this syndrome produced a good final height outcome but achieved suboptimal bone mineral density (BMD). In the present review, we have explained our findings to clarify the merits and demerits of this new therapy and to promote further discussion and research. This type of ultra-low-dose estrogen therapy, initiated at an early age, could be ideal for estrogen replacement in female patients with hypogonadism, such as Turner syndrome.

BIRTH OF HEALTHY NEONATE FOLLOWING PREIMPLANTATION GENETIC DIAGNOSIS IN A MOTHER WITH MOSAIC TURNER SYNDROME. CASE REPORT AND REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

OBJECTIVE

To report the case of a patient with mosaic Turner syndrome who underwent assisted reproduction treatment with preimplantation genetic testing for aneuploidy and gave birth to a healthy baby girl with normal karyotype; and to conduct a review of the literature on the usefulness of preimplantation genetic diagnosis in women with Turner syndrome.

METHODS

A case of a 27 year-old woman diagnosed with mosaic Turner syndrome and secondary altered ovarian reserve, seen in a referral center for infertility management in Medellín, Colombia. The patient underwent in vitro fertilization followed by pre-implantation genetic testing to prevent transmission of Turner syndrome to her progeny. A literature search was conducted in the Medline via PubMed, Clinical Key, OVID, Embase, Lilacs, SciELO and Oxford Journals databases using the following terms: "Turner Syndrome," "Mosaic Turner," "Preimplantation Genetic Screening," "Preimplantation Genetic Testing," "Preimplantation Genetic Diagnosis," "Pregnancy," "Successful pregnancy." Inclusion criteria were case series and case reports, cohort studies and review articles published between January 1980 and June 2017 that included women with Turner syndrome achieving pregnancy by means of in vitro fertilization techniques with their own oocytes and who had undergone embryo biopsy for preimplantation genetic diagnosis. The search was limited to articles in Spanish and English.

RESULTS

one study met the inclusion criteria. Both in this report and in our case, patients with mosaic Turner syndrome underwent several cycles of intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI) with their own eggs, then performed embryonic biopsy for preimplantation genetic analysis using different techniques. In both cases, euploid embryos were transferred to the uterus with the subsequent birth of healthy girls with normal karyotype.

CONCLUSIONS

Patients with mosaic Turner syndrome could benefit from preimplantation biopsy and genetic analysis to prevent transmission of the genetic defect to their progeny.

Prevalence of diverse complications and its association with karyotypes in Japanese adult women with Turner syndrome-a questionnaire survey by the Foundation for Growth Science

The reported prevalence of complications in Turner Syndrome (TS) was highly variable because of the rarity and the limited numbers analyzed. Again, possible presence of other complications that are not described as specific for TS, is also speculated. To resolve these issues, a questionnaire survey was conducted in hGH treated 492 patients with adult TS (17-42 years). The possible association with these complications and karyotypes were also analyzed. The complications and their prevalence were as follows: chronic thyroiditis (25.2%), inflammatory bowel disease (1.8%), congenital cardiovascular anomaly (11.8%), urinary tract malformation (11.8%), low bone mineral density (BMD) (42.9%), scoliosis (8.4%), hearing loss (6.2%), epilepsy (2.8%) and schizophrenia (0.9%). The majority of prevalence of these diseases in TS was higher than in the general population. In distribution, the most frequent karyotype was 45,X monosomy (28.9%), followed by 45,X/46,X,Xi (16.9%), 46,X,Xi (9.1%), and 45,X/46,XX (6.3%), while other mosaic 45,X was noted in 29.9%. Regarding the karyotype, cardiovascular anomaly was more frequent in the 45,X group and less in the 46,X,Xi group. Urinary tract malformation and epilepsy were frequently associated with the chromosome 45,X. The prevalence of low BMD was noticed more in the chromosome 46,X,Xi and 45,X/46,X,Xi, and less in other mosaic 45,X. In conclusion, the more exact prevalence of diverse complications was clarified and it exceeded the prevalence of the majority of complications in general population. As novel findings, it was observed that the prevalence of epilepsy was significantly high, and epilepsy and low BMD were frequently associated with the specific karyotypes.

Gradually increasing ethinyl estradiol for Turner syndrome may produce good final height but not ideal BMD

Estrogen replacement therapy in Turner syndrome should theoretically mimic the physiology of healthy girls. The objective of this study was to describe final height and bone mineral density (BMD) in a group of 17 Turner syndrome patients (group E) who started their ethinyl estradiol therapy with an ultra-low dosage (1-5 ng/kg/day) from 9.8-13.7 years. The subjects in group E had been treated with GH 0.35 mg/kg/week since the average age of 7.4 years. The 30 subjects in group L, one of the historical groups, were given comparable doses of GH, and conjugated estrogen 0.3125 mg/week ∼0.3125 mg/day was initiated at 12.2-18.7 years. The subjects in group S, the other historical group, were 21 patients who experienced breast development and menarche spontaneously. Final height (height gain < 2 cm/year) in group E was 152.4 ± 3.4 cm and the standard deviation (SD) was 2.02 ± 0.62 for Turner syndrome. The final height in group L was 148.5 ± 3.0 cm with a SD of 1.30 ± 0.55, which was significantly different from the values for group E. The volumetric BMD of group S (0.290 ± 0.026 g/cm³) was significantly different from that of group L or E (0.262 or 0.262 g/cm³ as a mean, respectively). This is the first study of patients with Turner syndrome where estrogen was administered initially in an ultra-low dose and then increased gradually. Our estrogen therapy in group E produced good final height but not ideal BMD.

Reproductive Issues in Women with Turner Syndrome

Turner syndrome is one of the most common chromosomal abnormalities affecting female infants. The severity of clinical manifestations varies and it affects multiple organ systems. Women with Turner syndrome have a 3-fold increase in mortality, which becomes even more pronounced in pregnancy. Reproductive options include adoption or surrogacy, assisted reproductive techniques, and in rare cases spontaneous pregnancy. Risks for women with Turner syndrome during pregnancy include aortic disorders, hepatic disease, thyroid disease, type 2 diabetes, and cesarean section delivery. Providers must be familiar with the risks and recommendations in caring for women with Turner syndrome of reproductive age.

Effects of low-dose estrogen replacement during childhood on pubertal development and gonadotropin concentrations in patients with Turner syndrome: results of a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial

CONTEXT

The optimal approach to estrogen replacement in girls with Turner syndrome has not been determined.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of the study was to assess the effects of an individualized regimen of low-dose ethinyl estradiol (EE2) during childhood from as early as age 5, followed by a pubertal induction regimen starting after age 12 and escalating to full replacement over 4 years.

DESIGN

This study was a prospective, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial.

SETTING

The study was conducted at two US pediatric endocrine centers.

SUBJECTS

Girls with Turner syndrome (n = 149), aged 5.0-12.5 years, were enrolled; data from 123 girls were analyzable for pubertal onset.

INTERVENTION(S)

Interventions comprised placebo or recombinant GH injections three times a week, with daily oral placebo or oral EE2 during childhood (25 ng/kg/d, ages 5-8 y; 50 ng/kg/d, ages >8-12 y); after age 12, all patients received escalating EE2 starting at a nominal dosage of 100 ng/kg/d. Placebo/EE2 dosages were reduced by 50% for breast development before age 12 years, vaginal bleeding before age 14 years, or undue advance in bone age.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

The main outcome measures for this report were median ages at Tanner breast stage ≥2, median age at menarche, and tempo of puberty (Tanner 2 to menarche). Patterns of gonadotropin secretion and impact of childhood EE2 on gonadotropins also were assessed.

RESULTS

Compared with recipients of oral placebo (n = 62), girls who received childhood low-dose EE2 (n = 61) had significantly earlier thelarche (median, 11.6 vs 12.6 y, P < 0.001) and slower tempo of puberty (median, 3.3 vs 2.2 y, P = 0.003); both groups had delayed menarche (median, 15.0 y). Among childhood placebo recipients, girls who had spontaneous breast development before estrogen exposure had significantly lower median FSH values than girls who did not.

CONCLUSIONS

In addition to previously reported effects on cognitive measures and GH-mediated height gain, childhood estrogen replacement significantly normalized the onset and tempo of puberty. Childhood low-dose estrogen replacement should be considered for girls with Turner syndrome.

Gene dosage as a relevant mechanism contributing to the determination of ovarian function in Turner syndrome

STUDY QUESTION

What is the burden of X chromosome mosaicism in the occurrence of spontaneous menarche (SM) in Turner syndrome (TS)?

SUMMARY ANSWER

SM was significantly associated with X chromosome mosaicism in the TS patients; a mosaicism with around 10% euploid cell line may predict spontaneous pubertal development when determined by molecular-cytogenetic techniques on uncultivated tissues.

WHAT IS KNOWN ALREADY

Spontaneous puberty can be observed in a minority of patients with TS, more frequently, but not exclusively, in those with a high level of 46,XX/45,X mosaicism at standard karyotype. The genetic mechanisms contributing to ovarian function in TS patients are still not determined. However, submicroscopic X-linked and autosomal copy number variations (CNVs) have recently emerged as an important genetic risk category for premature ovarian insufficiency and may be involved in modulating the TS ovarian phenotype.

STUDY DESIGN, SIZE, DURATION

A group of 40 patients with a diagnosis of TS at conventional karyotyping participated in the study; 6 patients had SM and 34 patients had primary amenorrhoea (PA). All clinical data and the patients’ DNA samples were collected over the years at a single paediatric clinic.

PARTICIPANTS/MATERIALS, SETTING, METHODS

The patients' samples were used to perform both genetic (Copy Number Assay) and molecular-cytogenetic (array-CGH and iFISH, interphase-FISH) analyses in order to evaluate the X chromosome mosaicism rate and to detect possible rare CNVs of genes with a known or predicted role in female fertility.

MAIN RESULTS AND THE ROLE OF CHANCE

All TS patients showed variable percentages of the 46,XX lineage, but these percentages were higher in the SM group (P < 0.01). A mosaicism around 10% for the euploid cell line may predict spontaneous pubertal development when determined by molecular-cytogenetic techniques performed in uncultivated tissues. A few CNVs involving autosomal and X-linked ovary-related loci were identified by array-CGH analysis and confirmed by real-time quantitative PCR, including a BMP15 gene duplication at Xp11.22, a deletion interrupting the PAPPA gene at 9q33.1, and an intragenic duplication involving the PDE8A gene at 15q25.3.

LIMITATIONS, REASONS FOR CAUTION

This is a pilot study on a relatively small sample size and confirmation in larger TS cohorts may be required. The ovarian tissue could not be studied in any patients and in a subgroup of patients, the mosaicism was estimated in tissues of different embryonic origin.

WIDER IMPLICATIONS OF THE FINDINGS

The combined determination of X chromosome mosaicism by molecular and molecular-cytogenetic techniques may become useful for the prediction of SM in TS. The detection of CNVs in both X-linked and autosomal ovary-related genes further suggests gene dosage as a relevant mechanism contributing to the ovarian phenotype of TS patients. These CNVs may pinpoint novel candidates relevant to female fertility and generate further insights into the mechanisms contributing to ovarian function.

STUDY FUNDING/COMPETING INTEREST(S)

This study was funded by Telethon Foundation (grant no: GGP09126 to L.P.), the Italian Ministry of the University and Research (grant number: 2006065999 to P.F.) and a Ministry of Health grant ‘Ricerca Corrente’ to IRCCS Istituto Auxologico Italiano (grant number: 08C704-2006). The authors have no conflict of interest to declare.

Ovarian function in Duarte galactosemia

OBJECTIVE

To determine if girls with Duarte variant galactosemia (DG) have an increased risk of developing premature ovarian insufficiency based on prepubertal anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH) levels.

DESIGN

Cross-sectional study.

SETTING

University research laboratory.

PATIENT(S)

Study volunteers included 57 girls with DG, 89 girls with classic galactosemia (GG), and 64 control girls between the ages of <1 month and 10.5 years.

INTERVENTION(S)

Blood sampling.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S)

We determined AMH and FSH levels in study volunteers with and without Duarte variant or GG.

RESULT(S)

FSH levels were significantly higher and AMH levels significantly lower in girls with GG than in age-stratified control girls, but there was no significant difference between FSH and AMH levels in girls with DG and control girls.

CONCLUSION(S)

Although >80% of girls with GG in this study demonstrated low to undetectable AMH levels consistent with diminished ovarian reserve, 100% of girls with DG in our study demonstrated no apparent decrease in AMH levels or increase in FSH levels, suggesting that these girls are not at increased risk for premature ovarian insufficiency.