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Hassan YR, El-Shiekh RA, El Hefnawy HM, Michael CG. Irvingia gabonensis baill. (African Mango): A comprehensive review of its ethnopharmacological significance, unveiling its long-standing history and therapeutic potential. J Ethnopharmacol 2024; 326:117942. [PMID: 38395180 DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2024.117942] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2023] [Revised: 02/09/2024] [Accepted: 02/18/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024]
Abstract
ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE Irvingia gabonensis (Aubry-Lecomte ex O'Rorke) Baill. (IG) is a multipurpose tree native to tropical Africa such as Equatorial Guinea, Nigeria, Gabon, and Cameroon with high ethnomedicinal values. AIM OF THE STUDY This review emphasizes the ethnopharmacological significance, phytochemical, and functional properties of African mango, focusing on its potential for human health and industrial applications. MATERIALS AND METHODS Literature published on IG was traced by different databases, including the Egyptian Knowledge Bank database (EKB), ScienceDirect, PubMed, Google Scholars, Research Gate, Web of Science, Elsevier, and Scopus. Numerous keywords were used to achieve an inclusive search in the databases, like 'African Mango', 'Bush Mango', 'Irvingia gabonensis', 'Wild Mango', 'Dika Nut', 'Phytochemistry', 'Traditional uses', 'Functional foods', 'Polyphenols', 'Ogbono', 'Ellagic acid and its derivatives', and 'Pharmacological activities'. RESULTS Different parts of IG have been employed in traditional medicine and recorded a great success. The ripe fruit pulp was consumed fresh or processed into juice and wine documented for anti-diarrheal, anti-diabetic, anti-ulcer, hepatoprotective, antimicrobial, and anti-inflammatory properties. The kernels, which are widely traded and incorporated into traditional dishes, remain an integral part of culinary traditions. Seeds have folkloric uses for weight loss and are popular as blood thinners and anti-diabetics. Where the bark is reported for dysentery, colic, scabies, toothache, and various skin conditions. In Senegal, the stem bark is employed for gonorrhea, hepatic disorders, and gastrointestinal ailments. The leaves possess the potential to enhance renal and hepatic functions, safeguarding these vital organs against the detrimental effects of toxic substances. Pulp is rich in vitamin C, carbohydrates, and proteins. Oil is the major constituent of the seed, which is mainly composed of myristic and lauric acids. The defatted extracts are characterized by flavonoid glycosides and ellagic acid derivatives. Despite their widespread use, IG extracts are still inadequately characterized phytochemically and merit further investigation within the realm of scientific research. Encouragingly, toxicity studies have demonstrated the relative safety of IG extract at the administered doses. CONCLUSION The review extends our knowledge of the health benefits of IG, where these effects could be attributed to the phytochemicals present.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Riham A El-Shiekh
- Department of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt.
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Li W, Rang Y, Liu H, Liu C. Update on new trends and progress of natural active ingredients in the intervention of Alzheimer's disease, based on understanding of traditional Chinese and Western relevant theories: A review. Phytother Res 2023; 37:3744-3764. [PMID: 37380605 DOI: 10.1002/ptr.7908] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2022] [Revised: 05/17/2023] [Accepted: 05/18/2023] [Indexed: 06/30/2023]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is one of the major neurological disorders causing death in the elderly worldwide. As a neurodegenerative disease that is difficult to prevent and cure, the pathogenesis of AD is complex and there is no effective cure. A variety of natural products derived from plants have been reported to have promising anti-AD activities, including flavonoids, terpenes, phenolic acids and alkaloids, which can effectively relieve the symptoms of AD in a variety of ways. This paper mainly reviews the pharmacological activity and mechanisms of natural products against AD. Although the clinical efficacy of these plants still needs to be determined by further high-quality studies, it may also provide a basis for future researchers to study anti-AD in depth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weiye Li
- College of Food Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
- The Key Laboratory of Food Quality and Safety of Guangdong Province, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yifeng Rang
- College of Food Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
- The Key Laboratory of Food Quality and Safety of Guangdong Province, Guangzhou, China
| | - Huan Liu
- College of Food Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
- The Key Laboratory of Food Quality and Safety of Guangdong Province, Guangzhou, China
| | - Chunhong Liu
- College of Food Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
- The Key Laboratory of Food Quality and Safety of Guangdong Province, Guangzhou, China
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Ajiboye BO, Oyinloye BE, Ojo OA, Lawal OE, Jokomba YA, Balogun BA, Adeoye AO, Ajuwon OR. Effect of Flavonoid-Rich Extract From Dalbergiella welwitschii Leaf on Redox, Cholinergic, Monoaminergic, and Purinergic Dysfunction in Oxidative Testicular Injury: Ex Vivo and In Silico Studies. Bioinform Biol Insights 2022; 16:11779322221115546. [PMID: 35966809 PMCID: PMC9373118 DOI: 10.1177/11779322221115546] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2022] [Accepted: 06/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The antioxidant, cholinergic, monoaminergic, and purinergic activities of flavonoid-rich extract from Dalbergiella welwitschii leaf (FEDW) were investigated on oxidative testicular injury (ex vivo) due to the local report on the use of this plant as anti-testicular injury. Flavonoid extract was obtained from FEDW using a standard procedure. Five male albino rats were used, testes harvested and incubated with FeSO4 for accessing the cholinergic, monoaminergic, and purinergic activities of the FEDW (ex vivo). Testicular tissues incubated with FeSO4 demonstrated a significant decrease in antioxidant biomarkers, arginase, ATPase, ENTPDase, 5'-nucleotidase, and PDE-5 activities, as well as Zn and sialic acid levels with an upsurge in malondialdehyde (MDA), and NO levels, myeloperoxidase, cholinesterases, monoamine oxidase (MAO), and angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) activities. Treatment of testicular tissues incubated with FeSO4 via different concentrations of FEDW significantly increased the activities of antioxidant, arginase, ATPase, E-NTPDase, 5'-nucleotidase, phosphodiesterase-5 (PDE-5), as well as Zn and sialic acid levels with a significant decrease in MDA, nitric oxide (NO), myeloperoxidase, cholinesterases, MAO, and ACE levels. Molecular docking revealed the molecular interactions of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) with ellagic acid, piperine, and caffeine with piperine and caffeine obeyed the druggability and pharmacokinetic. These findings point to FEDW as a possible potential for the treatment of oxidative testicular injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Basiru Olaitan Ajiboye
- Phytomedicine and Molecular Toxicology Research Laboratory, Department of Biochemistry, Federal University Oye-Ekiti, Oye-Ekiti, Nigeria.,Institute of Drug Research and Development, SE Bogoro Center, Afe Babalola University, Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria
| | - Babatunji Emmanuel Oyinloye
- Institute of Drug Research and Development, SE Bogoro Center, Afe Babalola University, Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria.,Phytomedicine, Biochemical Toxicology and Biotechnology Research Laboratories, Department of Biochemistry, College of Sciences, Afe Babalola University, Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria.,Biotechnology and Structural Biology (BSB) Group, Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Zululand, KwaDlangezwa, South Africa
| | - Oluwafemi Adeleke Ojo
- Phytomedicine, Molecular Toxicology, and Computational Biochemistry Research Laboratory (PMTCB-RL), Department of Biochemistry, Bowen University, Iwo, Nigeria
| | - Olaolu Ebenezer Lawal
- Phytomedicine and Molecular Toxicology Research Laboratory, Department of Biochemistry, Federal University Oye-Ekiti, Oye-Ekiti, Nigeria
| | - Yesirat Abimbola Jokomba
- Phytomedicine and Molecular Toxicology Research Laboratory, Department of Biochemistry, Federal University Oye-Ekiti, Oye-Ekiti, Nigeria
| | - Basheer Ajibola Balogun
- Clinical Biochemistry Unit, Department of Biochemistry, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria
| | - Akinwunmi Oluwaseun Adeoye
- Biomembrane, Phytomedicine, and Drug Development Unit, Department of Biochemistry, Federal University Oye-Ekiti, Oye-Ekiti, Nigeria
| | - Olawale Rasaq Ajuwon
- Redox Biology Research Unit, Department of Biochemistry, Federal University Oye-Ekiti, Oye-Ekiti, Nigeria
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Ojo OA, Amanze JC, Oni AI, Grant S, Iyobhebhe M, Elebiyo TC, Rotimi D, Asogwa NT, Oyinloye BE, Ajiboye BO, Ojo AB. Antidiabetic activity of avocado seeds (Persea americana Mill.) in diabetic rats via activation of PI3K/AKT signaling pathway. Sci Rep 2022; 12. [PMID: 35190649 PMCID: PMC8861005 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-07015-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2021] [Accepted: 02/10/2022] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
The treatment of diabetes involves the use of herbal plants, attracting interest in their cost-effectiveness and efficacy. An aqueous extract of Persea americana seeds (AEPAS) was explored in this study as a possible therapeutic agent in rats with diabetes mellitus. The induction of diabetes in the rats was achieved by injecting 65 mg/kg body weight (BWt) of alloxan along with 5% glucose. This study was conducted using thirty-six (36) male Wistar rats. The animals were divided into 6 equal groups, (n = 6) and treated for 14 days. In vitro assays for total flavonoid, phenols, FRAP, DPPH, NO, α-amylase, and α-glucosidase, were performed. Biochemical indices fasting blood sugar (FBS), BWt, serum insulin, liver hexokinase, G6P, FBP, liver glycogen, IL-6, TNF-α, and NF-ĸB in the serum, were investigated as well as the mRNA expressions of PCNA, Bcl2, PI3K/Akt in the liver and pancreas. The in vitro analyses showed the potency of AEPAS against free radicals and its enzyme inhibitory potential as compared with the positive controls. AEPAS showed a marked decrease in alloxan-induced increases in FBG, TG, LDL-c, G6P, F-1, 6-BP, MDA, IL-6, TNF-α, and NF-ĸB and increased alloxan-induced decreases in liver glycogen, hexokinase, and HDL-c. The diabetic control group exhibited pancreatic dysfunction as evidenced by a reduction in serum insulin, HOMA-β, expressions of PI3K/AKT, Bcl-2, and PCNA combined with an elevation in HOMA-IR. The HPLC revealed luteolin and myricetin to be the phytochemicals that were present in the highest concentration in AEPAS. The outcome of this research showed that the administration of AEPAS can promote the activation of the PI3K/AkT pathway and the inhibition of β-cell death, which may be the primary mechanism by which AEPAS promotes insulin sensitivity and regulates glycolipid metabolism.
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Adetuyi FO, Akintimehin ES, Karigidi KO. Comparative analysis of freshly harvested and stored Bacopa floribunda leaves: HPLC phenolic fingerprinting, antioxidant and cholinergic enzyme inhibition properties. ADV TRADIT MED (ADTM) 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s13596-021-00626-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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Ojo OA, Ojo AB, Okolie C, Nwakama MAC, Iyobhebhe M, Evbuomwan IO, Nwonuma CO, Maimako RF, Adegboyega AE, Taiwo OA, Alsharif KF, Batiha GES. Deciphering the Interactions of Bioactive Compounds in Selected Traditional Medicinal Plants against Alzheimer's Diseases via Pharmacophore Modeling, Auto-QSAR, and Molecular Docking Approaches. Molecules 2021; 26:molecules26071996. [PMID: 33915968 PMCID: PMC8037217 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26071996] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2021] [Revised: 03/22/2021] [Accepted: 03/29/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Neurodegenerative diseases, for example Alzheimer’s, are perceived as driven by hereditary, cellular, and multifaceted biochemical actions. Numerous plant products, for example flavonoids, are documented in studies for having the ability to pass the blood-brain barrier and moderate the development of such illnesses. Computer-aided drug design (CADD) has achieved importance in the drug discovery world; innovative developments in the aspects of structure identification and characterization, bio-computational science, and molecular biology have added to the preparation of new medications towards these ailments. In this study we evaluated nine flavonoid compounds identified from three medicinal plants, namely T. diversifolia, B. sapida, and I. gabonensis for their inhibitory role on acetylcholinesterase (AChE), butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) and monoamine oxidase (MAO) activity, using pharmacophore modeling, auto-QSAR prediction, and molecular studies, in comparison with standard drugs. The results indicated that the pharmacophore models produced from structures of AChE, BChE and MAO could identify the active compounds, with a recuperation rate of the actives found near 100% in the complete ranked decoy database. Moreso, the robustness of the virtual screening method was accessed by well-established methods including enrichment factor (EF), receiver operating characteristic curve (ROC), Boltzmann-enhanced discrimination of receiver operating characteristic (BEDROC), and area under accumulation curve (AUAC). Most notably, the compounds’ pIC50 values were predicted by a machine learning-based model generated by the AutoQSAR algorithm. The generated model was validated to affirm its predictive model. The best models achieved for AChE, BChE and MAO were models kpls_radial_17 (R2 = 0.86 and Q2 = 0.73), pls_38 (R2 = 0.77 and Q2 = 0.72), kpls_desc_44 (R2 = 0.81 and Q2 = 0.81) and these externally validated models were utilized to predict the bioactivities of the lead compounds. The binding affinity results of the ligands against the three selected targets revealed that luteolin displayed the highest affinity score of −9.60 kcal/mol, closely followed by apigenin and ellagic acid with docking scores of −9.60 and −9.53 kcal/mol, respectively. The least binding affinity was attained by gallic acid (−6.30 kcal/mol). The docking scores of our standards were −10.40 and −7.93 kcal/mol for donepezil and galanthamine, respectively. The toxicity prediction revealed that none of the flavonoids presented toxicity and they all had good absorption parameters for the analyzed targets. Hence, these compounds can be considered as likely leads for drug improvement against the same.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oluwafemi Adeleke Ojo
- Medicinal Biochemistry and Biochemical Toxicology Group, Department of Biochemistry, Landmark University, Omu-Aran PMB 1001, Nigeria; (M.-A.C.N.); (M.I.); (C.O.N.); (R.F.M.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +234-703-782-4647
| | - Adebola Busola Ojo
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Sciences, Ekiti State University, Ado-Ekiti PMB 5363, Nigeria;
| | - Charles Okolie
- Department of Microbiology, Landmark University, Omu-Aran PMB 1001, Nigeria; (C.O.); (I.O.E.)
| | - Mary-Ann Chinyere Nwakama
- Medicinal Biochemistry and Biochemical Toxicology Group, Department of Biochemistry, Landmark University, Omu-Aran PMB 1001, Nigeria; (M.-A.C.N.); (M.I.); (C.O.N.); (R.F.M.)
| | - Matthew Iyobhebhe
- Medicinal Biochemistry and Biochemical Toxicology Group, Department of Biochemistry, Landmark University, Omu-Aran PMB 1001, Nigeria; (M.-A.C.N.); (M.I.); (C.O.N.); (R.F.M.)
| | | | - Charles Obiora Nwonuma
- Medicinal Biochemistry and Biochemical Toxicology Group, Department of Biochemistry, Landmark University, Omu-Aran PMB 1001, Nigeria; (M.-A.C.N.); (M.I.); (C.O.N.); (R.F.M.)
| | - Rotdelmwa Filibus Maimako
- Medicinal Biochemistry and Biochemical Toxicology Group, Department of Biochemistry, Landmark University, Omu-Aran PMB 1001, Nigeria; (M.-A.C.N.); (M.I.); (C.O.N.); (R.F.M.)
| | | | | | - Khalaf F. Alsharif
- Department of Clinical Laboratory Sciences, College of Applied Medical Sciences, Taif University, P.O. Box 11099, Taif 21944, Saudi Arabia;
| | - Gaber El-Saber Batiha
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Damanhour University, Damanhour, AlBeheira 22511, Egypt;
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Ojo OA, Aruleba RT, Adekiya TA, Sibuyi NRS, Ojo AB, Ajiboye BO, Oyinloye BE, Adeola HA, Fadaka AO. Deciphering the interaction of puerarin with cancer macromolecules: An in silico investigation. J Biomol Struct Dyn 2020; 40:848-859. [PMID: 32924840 DOI: 10.1080/07391102.2020.1819425] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
The worldwide expanding increment in cancer pervasiveness is disturbing and this disease ranks among the main causes of mortality in both developing and developed countries. Unfortunately, available treatment options come with serious side effects and do not guarantee complete success. Although numerous models have been proposed for the development of better therapeutic agent, however the exact mechanism are still poorly understood. This then calls for continued research aimed at developing new drugs as an alternative or adjuvant anticancer agents. Here we have identified five vital proteins (CDK-2, Bcl-2, CDK-6, VEGFR, and IGF-1R) that aid tumor growth and we inhibited the activity of these proteins with Puerarin. Puerarin is an isoflavonoid C-glycosides used as a therapeutic agent against various human ailments. Our findings revealed that Puerarin fulfilled Veber's rule. Added to this, CDK-6 and Bcl-2 had better glide scores for puerarin than the control (doxorubicin) and molecular simulation showed the stability of the complexes. These findings suggest that inhibiting CDK-6 and Bcl-2 with Puerarin could prove more effective in the management of cancer than doxorubicin. Overall, this study provides a new direction that could facilitate rational drug design for cancer.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oluwafemi Adeleke Ojo
- Phytomedicine, Natural Products, Drug and Biochemical Toxicology Group, Department of Biochemistry, Landmark University, Omu Aran, Kwara State, Nigeria
| | - Raphael Taiwo Aruleba
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, Faculty of Science, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Tayo Alex Adekiya
- Wits Advanced Drug Delivery Platform Research Unit, Department of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, School of Therapeutic Science, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Parktown, South Africa
| | - Nicole Remaliah Samantha Sibuyi
- Department of Science and Innovation/Mintek Nanotechnology Innovation Centre, Biolabels Node, Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of the Western Cape, Bellville, South Africa
| | - Adebola Busola Ojo
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Sciences, Ekiti State University, Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria
| | - Basiru Olaitan Ajiboye
- Phytomedicine, Biochemical Toxicology and Biotechnology Research Laboratory, Department of Biochemistry, College of Sciences, Afe Babalola University, Ado-Ekiti, Ekiti State, Nigeria
| | - Babatunji Emmanuel Oyinloye
- Phytomedicine, Biochemical Toxicology and Biotechnology Research Laboratory, Department of Biochemistry, College of Sciences, Afe Babalola University, Ado-Ekiti, Ekiti State, Nigeria.,Biotechnology and Structural Biology (BSB) Group, Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Zululand, Richards Bay, South Africa
| | - Henry Ademola Adeola
- Hair and Skin Research Laboratory, Division of Dermatology, Department of Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences and Groote Schuur Hospital, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Adewale Oluwaseun Fadaka
- Department of Science and Innovation/Mintek Nanotechnology Innovation Centre, Biolabels Node, Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of the Western Cape, Bellville, South Africa
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Ojo OA, Okesola MA, Ekakitie LI, Ajiboye BO, Oyinloye BE, Agboinghale PE, Onikanni AS. Gongronema latifolium Benth. leaf extract attenuates diabetes-induced neuropathy via inhibition of cognitive, oxidative stress and inflammatory response. J Sci Food Agric 2020; 100:4504-4511. [PMID: 32400016 DOI: 10.1002/jsfa.10491] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2020] [Revised: 05/05/2020] [Accepted: 05/13/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Gongronema latifolium (G. latifolium) Benth. leaves are traditionally used to treat diabetes mellitus (DM) and other diseases in Nigeria and West Africa. This study was performed to evaluate the neuroprotective effect of aqueous extract of G. latifolium leaf against DM. Antidiabetic activity of G. latifolium extracts (6.36, 12.72 and 25.44 mg kg-1 , i.p.) was determined in alloxan-induced diabetic rats. Fasting blood glucose level and oxidative stress markers catalase (CAT), superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), malondialdehyde (MDA), and nitric oxide (NO) levels were measured. Cognitive biomarkers acetylcholinesterase (AChE), butyrylcholinesterase (BChE), dopamine (DOPA), serotonin, epinephrine and norepinephrine and cyclooxygenase (COX-2) were measured in the brain of controls and of G. latifolium-treated diabetic rats. RESULTS Administration of G. latifolium leaf extract to diabetic rats significantly restored the alterations in the levels of fasting blood glucose (FBG). The MDA and NO levels were significantly reduced with an improvement in CAT, SOD, and GPx activity in the kidneys and brains of diabetic rats treated with G. latifolium. Gongronema latifolium also significantly decreased the levels of AChE, BChE, DOPA, serotonin, epinephrine, and nor-epinephrine in diabetic rats. G. latifolium effectively ameliorated COX-2 in diabetic rats. CONCLUSION This study showed that leaf extract of G. latifolium improved antioxidant defense against oxidative stress. It displays a neuroprotective effect resulting in the modulation of brain neurotransmitters, which could be considered as a promising treatment therapy. © 2020 Society of Chemical Industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oluwafemi Adeleke Ojo
- Department of Biochemistry, Landmark University, Omu-Aran, Kwara State, Nigeria
- Phytomedicine and Nutraceutical Research Laboratory, Department of Biochemistry, College of Sciences, Afe Babalola University, Ado-Ekiti, Ekiti State, Nigeria
| | - Mary Abiola Okesola
- Department of Biochemistry, College of Sciences, Covenant University, Ota, Ogun State, Nigeria
| | - Lisa Ilobekemen Ekakitie
- Phytomedicine and Nutraceutical Research Laboratory, Department of Biochemistry, College of Sciences, Afe Babalola University, Ado-Ekiti, Ekiti State, Nigeria
| | - Basiru Olaitan Ajiboye
- Phytomedicine and Nutraceutical Research Laboratory, Department of Biochemistry, College of Sciences, Afe Babalola University, Ado-Ekiti, Ekiti State, Nigeria
| | - Babatunji Emmanuel Oyinloye
- Phytomedicine and Nutraceutical Research Laboratory, Department of Biochemistry, College of Sciences, Afe Babalola University, Ado-Ekiti, Ekiti State, Nigeria
- Biotechnology and Structural Biology (BSB) Group, Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Zululand, KwaDlangezwa 3886, South Africa
| | - Precious Eseose Agboinghale
- Phytomedicine and Nutraceutical Research Laboratory, Department of Biochemistry, College of Sciences, Afe Babalola University, Ado-Ekiti, Ekiti State, Nigeria
| | - Amos Sunday Onikanni
- Phytomedicine and Nutraceutical Research Laboratory, Department of Biochemistry, College of Sciences, Afe Babalola University, Ado-Ekiti, Ekiti State, Nigeria
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Ajiboye BO, Ojo OA, Fatoba B, Afolabi OB, Olayide I, Okesola MA, Oyinloye BE. In vitro antioxidant and enzyme inhibitory properties of the n-butanol fraction of Senna podocarpa (Guill. and Perr.) leaf. J Basic Clin Physiol Pharmacol 2019; 31:jbcpp-2019-0123. [PMID: 31874099 DOI: 10.1515/jbcpp-2019-0123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2019] [Accepted: 08/09/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Background This study evaluates the antioxidant activity and enzyme inhibitory properties of the n-butanol fraction of Senna podocarpa leaves on α-amylase, α-glucosidase, acetylcholinesterase (AChE), butyrylcholinesterase (BChE), tyrosinase, arginase, phosphodiesterase 5 (PDE-5), and angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE). Methods The total phenol and flavonoids, iron (Fe) chelation, and 2,2-azino-bis-3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid (ABTS) free radical scavenging were used to determine the antioxidant activity, and the inhibitory activities of α-glucosidase, α-amylase, AChE, BChE, tyrosinase, arginase, PDE-5 and ACE were also assessed. Results The n-butanol fraction of S. podocarpa shows high total phenol and total flavonoid contents. The n-butanol fraction of S. podocarpa leaves also chelates Fe2+ and ABTS radicals. The n-butanol fraction of S. podocarpa leaves also inhibited α-glucosidase, α-amylase, AChE, BChE, tyrosinase, arginase, PDE-5, and ACE at the concentration tested. Chromatographic analysis displayed the presence of β-elemene, phytol and caryophyllene oxide chrysophanol, 3-oxo-methyl ester, α-humulene, β-caryophyllene, rhein, emodin, and α-copaene. Conclusions Hence, the n-butanol fraction of S. podocarpa leaves demonstrates encouraging feat in controlling and/or managing cognitive dysfunction such as Alzheimer's disease and also hypertension, diabetes, erectile dysfunction, endothelial dysfunction, and hyperpigmentation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Basiru Olaitan Ajiboye
- Nutraceutical and Phytomedicine Research Laboratory, Biochemistry Programme, Department of Chemical Sciences, Afe Babalola University, Ado-Ekiti, Ekiti State, Nigeria, Phone: +234-7039027683
| | - Oluwafemi Adeleke Ojo
- Nutraceutical and Phytomedicine Research Laboratory, Biochemistry Programme, Department of Chemical Sciences, Afe Babalola University, Ado-Ekiti, Ekiti State, Nigeria
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria, Phone: +234-7037824647
| | - Bamidele Fatoba
- Nutraceutical and Phytomedicine Research Laboratory, Biochemistry Programme, Department of Chemical Sciences, Afe Babalola University, Ado-Ekiti, Ekiti State, Nigeria
| | - Olakunke Bamikole Afolabi
- Nutraceutical and Phytomedicine Research Laboratory, Biochemistry Programme, Department of Chemical Sciences, Afe Babalola University, Ado-Ekiti, Ekiti State, Nigeria
| | - Israel Olayide
- Nutraceutical and Phytomedicine Research Laboratory, Biochemistry Programme, Department of Chemical Sciences, Afe Babalola University, Ado-Ekiti, Ekiti State, Nigeria
| | | | - Babatunji Emmanuel Oyinloye
- Nutraceutical and Phytomedicine Research Laboratory, Biochemistry Programme, Department of Chemical Sciences, Afe Babalola University, Ado-Ekiti, Ekiti State, Nigeria
- Biotechnology and Structural Biology (BSB) Group, Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Zululand, KwaDlangezwa 3886, South Africa
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Ojo OA, Ojo AB, Oyinloye BE, Ajiboye BO, Anifowose OO, Akawa A, Olaiya OE, Olasehinde OR, Kappo AP. Ocimum gratissimum Linn. Leaves reduce the key enzymes activities relevant to erectile dysfunction in isolated penile and testicular tissues of rats. Altern Ther Health Med 2019; 19:71. [PMID: 30890127 PMCID: PMC6425690 DOI: 10.1186/s12906-019-2481-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2018] [Accepted: 03/12/2019] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Ocimum gratissimum L. is a medicinal plant widely grown in tropical and subtropical regions with the leaf decoction usually taken in folk medicine to enhance erectile performance in men although the probable mechanism of actions remains undetermined. This study examined the inhibitory potentials of Ocimum gratissimum leaves on some key enzymes associated with erectile dysfunction in penile and testicular tissues of the rat. METHODS Inhibitory effect of aqueous extract (1:10 w/v) of O. gratissimum leaves on the activities of phosphodiesterase-5 (PDE-5), arginase, angiotensin I -converting enzyme (ACE), and acetylcholinesterase (AChE) in penile and testicular tissues were assessed. Also, the extract was investigated for ferric reducing antioxidant property(FRAP) and 1,1-diphenyl-2-picryl-hydrazil (DPPH) radical scavenging abilities. RESULTS The extract showed higher PDE-5 (IC50 = 43.19 μg/mL), ACE (IC50 = 44.23 μg/mL), AChE (IC50 = 55.51 μg/mL) and arginase (IC50 = 46.12 μg/mL) inhibitory activity in the penile tissue than PDE-5 (IC50 = 44.67 μg/mL), ACE (IC50 = 53.99 μg/mL), AChE (IC50 = 60.03 μg/mL) and arginase (IC50 = 49.12 μg/mL) inhibitory activity in the testicular tissue homogenate. Furthermore, the extract scavenged free radicals and in a dose-dependent manner. CONCLUSION The enzyme activities displayed might be associated with the bioactive compounds present in the extract which could possibly explain its use in the management of erectile dysfunction (ED).
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11
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Okesola MA, Ajiboye BO, Oyinloye BE, Ojo OA. Neuromodulatory effects of ethyl acetate fraction of Zingiber officinale Roscoe extract in rats with lead-induced oxidative stress. J Integr Med 2019; 17:125-131. [PMID: 30660591 DOI: 10.1016/j.joim.2019.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2018] [Accepted: 10/16/2018] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE This study investigated the ameliorative potential of Zingiber officinale Roscoe extract against lead-induced brain damage in rats. METHODS Thirty male rats were divided into 5 groups of 6 rats each. Lead-acetate toxicity was induced by intraperitoneal injection (10 mg/kg body weight (b.w.)) in Groups B-E. Group A (control) and Group B (lead-acetate) were left untreated; vitamin C (200 mg/kg b.w.) was administered to Group C; ethyl acetate fraction from Z. officinale extract (200 and 100 mg/kg b.w.) was administered to Group D and E by oral gavage once daily for 7 days. Changes in the content of some key marker enzymes such as acetylcholinesterase (AChE), butyrylcholinesterase (BChE), monoamine oxidase (MAO), epinephrine, dopamine, Na+/K+-ATPase, catalase (CAT), superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione peroxidase (GPx) as well as malonaldehyde (MDA) levels were determined in serum. RESULTS Exposure to lead acetate resulted in a significant decrease (P < 0.05) in the activities of BChE, AChE, Na+/K+-ATPase, SOD, CAT and GPx with a corresponding increase in the levels of MDA, xanthine oxidase, epinephrine, dopamine and MAO relative to the control group. Levels of all disrupted parameters were alleviated by co-administration of Z. officinale fraction and by the standard drug, vitamin C. CONCLUSION These results suggest that ethyl acetate fraction of Z. officinale extract attenuates lead-induced brain damage and might have therapeutic potential as a supplement that can be applied in lead poisoning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mary Abiola Okesola
- Department of Biochemistry, Covenant University, Ogun State 112233, Nigeria.
| | | | | | - Oluwafemi Adeleke Ojo
- Department of Biochemistry, Afe Babalola University, Ado-Ekiti 360001, Nigeria; Department of Biochemistry, University of Ilorin, Ilorin 240003, Nigeria
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12
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Ojo OA, Afon AA, Ojo AB, Ajiboye BO, Okesola MA, Aruleba RT, Adekiya TA, Oyinloye BE. Spondias mombim L. (Anacardiaceae): Chemical fingerprints, inhibitory activities, and molecular docking on key enzymes relevant to erectile dysfunction and Alzheimer's diseases. J Food Biochem 2019; 43:e12772. [PMID: 31353540 DOI: 10.1111/jfbc.12772] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2018] [Revised: 12/23/2018] [Accepted: 01/02/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Due to the exceptional wide range in biochemical activities of natural plant products, Spondias mombim L. are attaining a new height because they present great prospects for drug advancement. This research was designed to analyze the pharmaceutical properties of S. mombim L. ethyl acetate fraction (SMEAF) on key enzymes relevant to erectile and cognitive dysfunction. SMEAF inhibitory activities of the specified enzymes were determined spectrophotometrically. Chemical profile of SMEAF were assessed by HPLC/MS analysis. Thereafter, molecular docking of the studied enzymes with chlorogenic acid, lutein, and zeaxanthin were carried out using PATCHDOCK. SMEAF had remarkable enzyme inhibitory effects against phosphodiesterase-5 (PDE-5), arginase, angiotensin I-converting enzyme (ACE), cholinesterase, monoamine oxidase A (MAO), ecto-5' nucleotidase (E-NTDase), tyrosinase, and stimulated sodium-potassium ATPase (Na+/K+-ATPase) activities. HPLC/MS analysis revealed that phenolics and carotenoids were major components in these fraction notably, chlorogenic acid, lutein, and zeaxanthin. Our results suggested that SMEAF could be explored as phytopharmaceuticals. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: Spondias mombim L. are cooked as green vegetable with enormous medicinal value probably due to its polyphenols with potent antioxidant activity. Furthermore, the leaves could also be useful for therapeutic purposes against erectile dysfunction and central nervous system disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oluwafemi Adeleke Ojo
- Phytomedicine, and Biomedical Toxicology Unit, Department of Biochemistry, Afe Babalola University, Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria.,Department of Biochemistry, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria
| | - Adeola Agnes Afon
- Phytomedicine, and Biomedical Toxicology Unit, Department of Biochemistry, Afe Babalola University, Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria
| | | | - Basiru Olaitan Ajiboye
- Phytomedicine, and Biomedical Toxicology Unit, Department of Biochemistry, Afe Babalola University, Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria
| | | | - Raphael Taiwo Aruleba
- Biotechnology and Structural Biochemistry (BSB) Group, Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Zululand, KwaDlangezwa, South Africa
| | - Tayo Alex Adekiya
- Biotechnology and Structural Biochemistry (BSB) Group, Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Zululand, KwaDlangezwa, South Africa
| | - Babatunji Emmanuel Oyinloye
- Phytomedicine, and Biomedical Toxicology Unit, Department of Biochemistry, Afe Babalola University, Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria.,Biotechnology and Structural Biochemistry (BSB) Group, Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Zululand, KwaDlangezwa, South Africa
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13
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Ajiboye BO, Akalabu MC, Ojo OA, Afolabi OB, Okesola MA, Olayide I, Oyinloye BE. Inhibitory effect of ethyl acetate fraction of
Solanum macrocarpon
L. leaves on cholinergic, monoaminergic, and purinergic enzyme activities. J Food Biochem 2018. [DOI: 10.1111/jfbc.12643] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Basiru Olaitan Ajiboye
- Nutraceutical and Phytomedicine Research Laboratory, Biochemistry Programme, Department of Chemical Sciences Afe Babalola University Ado‐Ekiti Nigeria
| | - Maureen Chidima Akalabu
- Nutraceutical and Phytomedicine Research Laboratory, Biochemistry Programme, Department of Chemical Sciences Afe Babalola University Ado‐Ekiti Nigeria
| | - Oluwafemi Adeleke Ojo
- Nutraceutical and Phytomedicine Research Laboratory, Biochemistry Programme, Department of Chemical Sciences Afe Babalola University Ado‐Ekiti Nigeria
| | - Olakunle Bamikole Afolabi
- Nutraceutical and Phytomedicine Research Laboratory, Biochemistry Programme, Department of Chemical Sciences Afe Babalola University Ado‐Ekiti Nigeria
| | - Mary Abiola Okesola
- Nutraceutical and Phytomedicine Research Laboratory, Biochemistry Programme, Department of Chemical Sciences Afe Babalola University Ado‐Ekiti Nigeria
| | - Israel Olayide
- Nutraceutical and Phytomedicine Research Laboratory, Biochemistry Programme, Department of Chemical Sciences Afe Babalola University Ado‐Ekiti Nigeria
| | - Babatunji Emmanuel Oyinloye
- Nutraceutical and Phytomedicine Research Laboratory, Biochemistry Programme, Department of Chemical Sciences Afe Babalola University Ado‐Ekiti Nigeria
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Ajiboye BO, Ojo OA, Okesola MA, Oyinloye BE, Kappo AP. Ethyl acetate leaf fraction of Cnidoscolus aconitifolius (Mill.) I. M. Johnst: antioxidant potential, inhibitory activities of key enzymes on carbohydrate metabolism, cholinergic, monoaminergic, purinergic, and chemical fingerprinting. International Journal of Food Properties 2018. [DOI: 10.1080/10942912.2018.1504787] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Basiru Olaitan Ajiboye
- Nutraceutical and Phytomedicine Research Laboratory, Biochemistry Programme, Department of Chemical Sciences, Afe Babalola University, Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria
| | - Oluwafemi Adeleke Ojo
- Nutraceutical and Phytomedicine Research Laboratory, Biochemistry Programme, Department of Chemical Sciences, Afe Babalola University, Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria
| | - Mary Abiola Okesola
- Nutraceutical and Phytomedicine Research Laboratory, Biochemistry Programme, Department of Chemical Sciences, Afe Babalola University, Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria
| | - Babatunji Emmanuel Oyinloye
- Nutraceutical and Phytomedicine Research Laboratory, Biochemistry Programme, Department of Chemical Sciences, Afe Babalola University, Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria
- Biotechnology and Structural Biology (BSB) Group, Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Zululand, KwaDlangezwa 3886, South Africa
| | - Abidemi Paul Kappo
- Biotechnology and Structural Biology (BSB) Group, Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Zululand, KwaDlangezwa 3886, South Africa
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15
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Ojo OA, Ojo AB, Ajiboye BO, Olaiya O, Okesola MA, Boligon AA, de Campos MMA, Oyinloye BE, Kappo AP. HPLC-DAD fingerprinting analysis, antioxidant activities of Tithonia diversifolia (Hemsl.) A. Gray leaves and its inhibition of key enzymes linked to Alzheimer's disease. Toxicol Rep 2018; 5:585-592. [PMID: 29854628 PMCID: PMC5977871 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxrep.2018.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2017] [Revised: 05/10/2018] [Accepted: 05/13/2018] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Current study supports antioxidant activity of Tithonia diversifolia leaves. Current study also supports anti cholinesterase activity of Tithonia diversifolia leaves. Current investigation adequately characterized the phenolic compounds of Tithonia diversifolia leaves.
Tithonia diversifolia (Hemsl.) A. Gray leaves have long been used to manage neurodegenerative diseases without scientific basis. This study characterized the phenolic constituents, evaluated the antioxidant properties of phenolic extracts from T. diversifolia leaves used as traditional medicine in Africa and its inhibition of key enzymes linked to Alzheimer’s disease. The extract was rich in phenolic acids (gallic acid, chlorogenic acid, caffeic acid and p-coumaric acid) and flavonoids (apigenin) and had 1,1-diphenyl-2-picryl-hydrazil radical scavenging abilities (IC50 = 41.05 μg. mL−1), 2,2-Azino-bis3-ethylbenthiazoline-6sulphonic acid radical scavenging ability (IC50 = 33.51 μg. mL−1), iron chelation (IC50 = 38.50 μg. mL−1), reducing power (Fe3+- Fe2+) (7.34 AAEmg/100 g), inhibited acetylcholinesterase (IC50 = 39.27 μg mL−1) and butyrylcholinesterase (IC50 = 35.01 μg mL−1) activities. These results reveal the leaf as a rich source of phenolic compounds with antioxidant and cholinesterase inhibitory activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oluwafemi Adeleke Ojo
- Phytomedicine and Biochemical Toxicology Unit, Department of Biochemistry, Afe Babalola University, Ado-Ekiti, Mail Bag, 5454, Nigeria.,Department of Biochemistry, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria
| | - Adebola Busola Ojo
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, Afe Babalola University, Ado-Ekiti, Mail Bag 5454, Nigeria
| | - Basiru Olaitan Ajiboye
- Phytomedicine and Biochemical Toxicology Unit, Department of Biochemistry, Afe Babalola University, Ado-Ekiti, Mail Bag, 5454, Nigeria
| | - Oluranti Olaiya
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, Afe Babalola University, Ado-Ekiti, Mail Bag 5454, Nigeria
| | - Mary Abiola Okesola
- Phytomedicine and Biochemical Toxicology Unit, Department of Biochemistry, Afe Babalola University, Ado-Ekiti, Mail Bag, 5454, Nigeria
| | - Aline Augusti Boligon
- Graduate Program in Pharmaceutical Sciences, Federal University of Santa Maria, Build 26, room 1115, Santa Maria, CEP 97105-900, Brazil
| | - Marli Matiko Anraku de Campos
- Graduate Program in Pharmaceutical Sciences, Federal University of Santa Maria, Build 26, room 1115, Santa Maria, CEP 97105-900, Brazil
| | - Babatunji Emmanuel Oyinloye
- Phytomedicine and Biochemical Toxicology Unit, Department of Biochemistry, Afe Babalola University, Ado-Ekiti, Mail Bag, 5454, Nigeria.,Biotechnology and Structural Biology (BSB) Group, Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology University of Zululand, KwaDlangezwa, 3886, South Africa
| | - Abidemi Paul Kappo
- Biotechnology and Structural Biology (BSB) Group, Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology University of Zululand, KwaDlangezwa, 3886, South Africa
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Talabi J, Adeyemi S, Awopetu S, Ajiboye BO, Ojo OA. Inhibitory effect of aqueous extracts of raw and roasted Sesamum indicum L. seeds on key enzymes linked to type-2 diabetes (α-amylase and α-glucosidase) and Alzheimer's disease (acetylcholinesterase and butyrylcholinesterase). Potr S J F Sci 2018. [DOI: 10.5219/866] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Sesame (Sesamum indicum L.) seeds are nutritional food, but researches have limited knowledge about the antioxidant, antidiabetic and anticholinesterase activities of the seed. This study was conducted to determine the antioxidant activity, enzyme inhibitory potential (α-amylase and α-glucosidase) and acetylcholinesterase inhibitory property of aqueous extracts of raw and roasted sesame seeds. Antioxidant activities were analyzed using 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging property, 2,2-azino-bis-(3-ethylbenthiazoline-6- sulphonic acid (ABTS) scavenging ability, iron chelating ability and ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP). Anti-Alzheimer's potential was determined using acetylcholinesterase and butyrylcholinesterase enzyme inhibition assay. The results showed that the total phenolic and flavonoid contents were higher in the roasted S. indicum sample with the values of 19.81mg/100g and 17.19 mg/100g respectively. The raw S. indicum sample showed higher antioxidant activity in DPPH, and iron chelation assays; while roasted S. indicum sample showed higher in the reducing power and ABTS scavenging activity. However, anticholinesterase activity was higher in the roasted S. indicum sample than in the raw S. indicum sample. The extracts inhibited α-amylase activity in a concentration-dependent manner (20 - 100 µg.mL-1). The raw sample (16.55 ±0.89%) had higher inhibitory α-amylase activity compared to the roasted sample (15.78 ±0.48%) at 100 µg.mL-1. Inhibition of α-glucosidase was higher in the roasted sample at 100 µg.mL-1 (19.40 ±0.26%) compared to the raw sample at the same concentration (3.65 ±0.52%). These findings suggest that S. indicum L. is not only nutritious but also showed potential pharmacological properties.
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