Can Bengal Tiger (Panthera tigris tigris) endure the future climate and land use change scenario in the East Himalayan Region? Perspective from a multiple model framework

Large mammals are susceptible to land use and climate change, unless they are safeguarded within large, protected areas. It is crucial to comprehend the effects of these changes on mammals to develop a conservation plan. We identified ecological hotspots that can sustain an ecosystem for the endangered Bengal tiger (Panthera tigris tigris), an umbrella species. We developed three distinct ensemble species distribution models (SDMs) for the Bengal tiger in the Indian East Himalayan Region (IEHR). The first model served as the baseline and considered habitat type, climate, land cover, and anthropogenic threats. The second model focused on climate, land use, and anthropogenic threats, the third model focused on climate variables. We projected the second and third models onto two future climate scenarios: RCP 4.5 and RCP 8.5. We evaluated the threats possess to protected areas within eco-sensitive zone based on the potential tiger habitat. Finally, we compared the potential habitat with the IUCN tiger range. Our study revealed that the Brahmaputra valley will serve as the primary habitat for tigers in the future. However, considering the projected severe climate scenarios, it is anticipated that tigers will undergo a range shift towards the north and east, especially in high-altitude regions. Very high conservation priority areas, which make up 3.4% of the total area, are predominantly located in the riverine corridor of Assam. High conservation priority areas, which make up 5.5% of total area are located in Assam and Arunachal Pradesh. It is important to note that conservation priority areas outside of protected areas pose a greater threat to tigers. We recommend reassessing the IUCN Red List's assigned range map for tigers in the IEHR, as it is over-predicted. Our study has led us to conclude both land use and climate change possess threats to the future habitat of tigers. The outcomes of our study will provide crucial information on identifying habitat hotspots and facilitate appropriate conservation planning efforts.

Wild Felid Diversity, Space Use and Activity Patterns in the Eastern Himalaya, India

Species with similar resource requirements cannot coexist for long. To facilitate co-existence, carnivores adapt different strategies to partition the available resources in space and time. In high-altitude ecosystems with limited resources the operation becomes complex. We assessed species diversity and spatio-temporal resource partitioning among felid species inhabiting the intricate habitats of Khangchendzonga Biosphere Reserve (KBR), Eastern Himalaya. We used systematic camera trap surveys along with abundance and overlap indices to generate information on their space use and activity patterns. We recorded six species of felids belonging to five genera, including four species of global conservation importance. The differential use of space by felids was observed with respect to the habitat types determined by sharp altitudinal gradients with varied levels of spatial and altitudinal overlap. Maximum overlap was observed among Asiatic golden cat Catopuma temminckii, jungle cat Felis chaus and clouded leopard Neofelis nebulosa. The felids had distinct activity profiles from one other, particularly between golden cat and leopard cat Prionailurus bengalensis. Pianka’s index also provided weak evidence for temporal overlap among species. The overall results indicate that habitat heterogeneity facilitates primary separation at the spatial scale, although species are also segregated temporally. Golden cat was the most adaptive felid in the area, depicting a peculiar pattern of spatio-temporal segregation with other species. We suspect either intense competition or dietary segregation among some species, and propose a further investigation of their diet and the activity patterns of their prey. The study presents an early template of carnivore community organization in resource-scarce high-altitude environments, thus, offering huge ecological and conservation significance.

Community Reserves: Their significance for the conservation of mammals in a mosaic of community-managed lands in Meghalaya, Northeast India

Community Reserves (CRs) have been advocated for increasing the protected area coverage in northeast India where the land is primarily owned and managed by local indigenous institutions. To understand the significance of these reserves for the conservation of mammals, we investigated the diversity and abundance of mammals in five CRs in the Khasi Hills of Meghalaya as well as interviewed 75 local villagers to assess the hunting practices and perceptions of the Indigenous Khasis on mammals. We employed 60 camera traps in the CRs and undertook a recce survey (day-time and night-time) for capturing the diversity in the CRs. We used photo-capture rate and encounter rate as indices of relative abundance in the CRs. We used an exact multinomial test to test differences of opinion among the respondents of the five CRs. We found a relatively low abundance of mammals in the CRs, yet they persist. A total of 28 species were detected through camera trapping and recce survey and an additional 12 species were reported by respondents to also occur in the CRs. Among the respondents, it was believed that the decline in mammal populations was largely driven by habitat loss and degradation (82.67%) while only a few believed it was also driven by hunting (5.33%). Respondents also believed that the presence of the reserves and awareness programs taken under them had also led to a reduction in hunting (20%) in their area. Although, some attributed it to a general decline in wildlife populations and forest cover (21.33%). Thus, despite these CRs being small (<2 km2) and isolated, they still harbour mammal species and are important for retaining remnant forest patches in a landscape that is highly fragmented.

Mammals of the Bhagirathi basin, Western Himalaya: understanding distribution along spatial gradients of habitats and disturbances

Understanding the distribution of wildlife species and their response to diverse anthropogenic pressures is important for conservation planning and management of wildlife space in human-dominated landscapes. Assessments of anthropogenic impacts on mammals of the Indian Himalayan Region have mostly been limited to locations inside protected areas. We studied the occurrence of mammals in an unexplored landscape, the 7,586 km2 Bhagirathi basin, at an altitude of 500–5,200 m. The basin encompasses wilderness areas of various habitat types and protection status that are exposed to a range of anthropogenic pressures. Camera trapping at 209 locations during October 2015–September 2017 confirmed the occurrence of 39 species of mammals, nine of which are categorized as threatened (four Vulnerable, five Endangered) and four as Near Threatened on the IUCN Red List. We recorded five mammal species that were hitherto undocumented in Uttarakhand State: the argali Ovis ammon, Tibetan sand fox Vulpes ferrilata, woolly hare Lepus oiostolus, Eurasian lynx Lynx lynx and woolly flying squirrel Eupetaurus cinereus. In addition, we recorded two Endangered species, the dhole Cuon alpinus and tiger Panthera tigris. Threatened species such as the sambar Rusa unicolor, common leopard Panthera pardus and Asiatic black bear Ursus thibetanus occur in a wide variety of habitats despite anthropogenic disturbance. We recorded the snow leopard Panthera uncia in areas with high livestock density but temporally segregated from human activities. The musk deer Moschus spp. and Himalayan brown bear Ursus arctos isabellinus were recorded in subalpine habitats and appeared to be less affected by human and livestock presence. Our findings highlight the potential of the Bhagirathi basin as a stronghold for conservation of several threatened and rare mammal species.

Clouded Leopard Neofelis nebulosa (Griffith, 1821) (Mammalia: Carnivora: Felidae) in illegal wildlife trade in Nepal

We document trade of the Clouded Leopard Neofelis nebulosa in Nepal based on pelt seizure reports published in wildlife trade reports and in newspapers.  Just 27 cases in three decades seem little to suggest targeted illegal trade of the species, the seizure information in recent years indicate that illegal trade of Clouded Leopard body parts is still taking place.  Hence an in-depth assessment is necessary to understand properly the intensity and magnitude of illegal trade on Clouded Leopard in the country.

A checklist of mammals with historical records from Darjeeling-Sikkim Himalaya landscape, India

A region-specific species checklist is an important resource for biodiversity documentation and conservation. This review provides an updated mammal species checklist for the biodiversity hotspots of the Darjeeling-Sikkim landscape in Eastern Himalaya. The list was compiled by systematically reviewing 94 available publications spanning 178 years from 1841 to 2019, for mammals from the region. The species checklist is envisioned to aid in understanding the current status of mammal records, historical distribution, ranked conservation status of mammals, and research gaps. A total of 173 mammal species under 11 orders and 33 families, including the recently upgraded taxon, Sikkim Pika Ochotona sikimaria was enlisted. There are 25 species included in the IUCN threatened categories, 58 species listed in the CITES Appendices, and 112 species included in the schedules of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 in India. Although mammals receive the maximum research attention in the landscape, small mammals and bats have rarely been subjected to systematic studies in recent years.

Ecological preferences of large carnivores in remote, high-altitude protected areas: insights from Buxa Tiger Reserve, India

Difficult terrain and inclement weather limit our knowledge of large predators, such as the tiger Panthera tigris, in the Himalayas. A lack of empirical data on large carnivores can lead to mismanagement of protected areas and population declines. We used non-invasive genetic and remote sensing data to inform the management of such high-altitude protected areas. We used the tiger as a focal species to investigate prey preference and habitat suitability in India's Buxa Tiger Reserve, which encompasses several eco-geographical regions in the Himalayan and subtropical zones. During 2010–2013, 909 faecal samples were collected, of which 372 were confirmed, using genetic analysis, to be of tiger origin. Fourteen prey species/groups were identified in 240 tiger faecal samples, largely dominated by goats Capra spp. (26.59%), rhesus macaques Macaca mulatta (22.22%) and cattle Bos spp. (20.63%). Considering only the wild prey species for which survey data are available, however, and frequency of occurrence of prey in faecal samples, hog deer Axis porcinus, sambar deer Rusa unicolor and spotted deer Axis axis were the most preferred prey species. Using faecal sample locations to examine the relationship between tiger presence and environmental features indicated that the niche for tigers is narrower than the available protected area: c. 62% of core protected area is suitable, of which only 17% is highly suitable for tigers. Tigers prefer dense vegetation, open forests, riverine vegetation and areas close to water sources. Faecal sample-based studies have the potential to generate data that can help us understand the ecology of elusive carnivore species inhabiting high-altitude landscapes.

Camera traps can be heard and seen by animals

Camera traps are electrical instruments that emit sounds and light. In recent decades they have become a tool of choice in wildlife research and monitoring. The variability between camera trap models and the methods used are considerable, and little is known about how animals respond to camera trap emissions. It has been reported that some animals show a response to camera traps, and in research this is often undesirable so it is important to understand why the animals are disturbed. We conducted laboratory based investigations to test the audio and infrared optical outputs of 12 camera trap models. Camera traps were measured for audio outputs in an anechoic chamber; we also measured ultrasonic (n = 5) and infrared illumination outputs (n = 7) of a subset of the camera trap models. We then compared the perceptive hearing range (n = 21) and assessed the vision ranges (n = 3) of mammals species (where data existed) to determine if animals can see and hear camera traps. We report that camera traps produce sounds that are well within the perceptive range of most mammals’ hearing and produce illumination that can be seen by many species.

Precarious status of the Endangered dhole Cuon alpinus in the high elevation Eastern Himalayan habitats of Khangchendzonga Biosphere Reserve, Sikkim, India

During 2008–2010 we investigated the ecology of the Endangered dhole or wild dog Cuon alpinus in Khangchendzonga Biosphere Reserve in the Eastern Himalaya in Sikkim, India. We conducted camera trapping (n = 71 sites, 6,278 camera-days) and sign surveying along trails (n = 24; 629.43 km of effort) to assess the relative abundance, distribution and activity pattern of the dhole. Morphological characteristics evident in the 61 camera-trap photographs indicate that the dhole population in the Reserve may be the rare and genetically distinct subspecies C. alpinus primaevus. We detected dholes over a wide elevation range (2,501–4,100 m) that encompassed the upper temperate, subalpine, and alpine scrub zones. Dholes were diurnal, with peak activity at 08.00–10.00. Analysis of 41 scats indicated a diet comprising mainly mountain ungulates, rodents and pikas Ochotona sp. Although the frequency of occurrence of rodents was highest (32%) in the scats, 98.7% of the total biomass consumed was of mountain ungulates. Historical reports (1888–1894) indicated that the dhole was formerly abundant in Sikkim but was hunted to meet the high demand for its alleged medicinal properties. With no information on the status of the dhole in Sikkim for over a century, our study suggests that the species is now rare in the Reserve. To aid the conservation of the dhole and its main ungulate prey species extensive research and monitoring are required in the Reserve and elsewhere in the Eastern Himalaya.