Targeting nitric oxide in the subacute restorative treatment of ischemic stroke

Therapeutic effects of mirodenafil, a phosphodiesterase 5 inhibitor, on stroke models in rats

Mirodenafil is a phosphodiesterase 5 (PDE5) inhibitor with high specificity for its target and good blood-brain barrier permeability. The drug, which is currently used for treatment of erectile dysfunction, reduces Aβ and pTau levels and improves cognitive function in mouse models of Alzheimer's disease. In the present study, we investigated the effect of mirodenafil in the transient and permanent middle cerebral artery occlusion (tMCAO and pMCAO) models of stroke in rats. Starting 24 ​h after cerebral artery occlusion, mirodenafil was administered subcutaneously at doses of 0.5, 1, and 2 ​mg/kg per day for 9 days in the tMCAO model and for 28 days in the pMCAO model. Mirodenafil significantly increased sensorimotor and cognitive recovery of tMCAO and pMCAO rats compared to saline control rats, and significantly decreased the amount of degenerative cells and cleaved caspase-3 and cleaved PARP immunoreactive cells. Effects were seen in a dose-dependent manner up to 1 ​mg/kg mirodenafil. The benefits of mirodenafil treatment increased with longer treatment duration, and the largest improvements over control were typically observed on the last assessment day. There was no effect of mirodenafil on infarct volume in both tMCAO and pMCAO rats. In an experiment to determine the treatment window for mirodenafil effects, a protective effect was observed when treatment was delayed 72 ​h after MCAO, although the most improvement was observed with shorter treatment windows. Using pMCAO and tMCAO rat models of stroke, we determined that mirodenafil improves the recovery of sensorimotor and cognitive functions after MCAO and protects cortical cells from apoptosis and degeneration. Greater benefit was observed with longer duration of treatment, and improvement was seen even when treatment was delayed.

Regulation and Pharmacology of the Cyclic GMP and Nitric Oxide Pathway in Embryonic and Adult Stem Cells

This review summarizes recent advances in understanding the role of the nitric oxide (NO) and cyclic GMP (cGMP) pathway in stem cells. The levels of expression of various components of the pathway are changed during the differentiation of pluripotent embryonic stem cells. In undifferentiated stem cells, NO regulates self-renewal and survival predominantly through cGMP-independent mechanisms. Natriuretic peptides influence the growth of undifferentiated stem cells by activating particulate isoforms of guanylyl cyclases in a cGMP-mediated manner. The differentiation, recruitment, survival, migration, and homing of partially differentiated precursor cells of various types are sensitive to regulation by endogenous levels of NO and natriuretic peptides produced by stem cells, within surrounding tissues, and by the application of various pharmacological agents known to influence the cGMP pathway. Numerous drugs and formulations target various components of the cGMP pathway to influence the therapeutic efficacy of stem cell-based therapies. Thus, pharmacological manipulation of the cGMP pathway in stem cells can be potentially used to develop novel strategies in regenerative medicine.

An overview of conventional and investigational phosphodiesterase 5 inhibitors for treating erectile dysfunction and other conditions

INTRODUCTION

There is a rising concern about developing innovative, efficacious PDE5I molecules that provide better safety, efficacy, and tolerability with less adverse effects. Innovative PDE5I with dual targets have also been defined in the literature. Additionally, some of PDE5I are able to selectively inhibit other enzymes such as histone deacetylase, acetylcholine esterase, and cyclooxygenase or act as nitric oxide donors. This review presents knowledge concerning the advanced trends and perspectives in using PDE5I in treatment of ED and other conditions.

AREAS COVERED

Pre-clinical and early clinical trials that investigated the safety, efficacy, and tolerability of novel PDE5I such as Udenafil, Mirodenafil, Lodenafil, Youkenafil, Celecoxib, and TPN729 in treatment of ED and other conditions.

EXPERT OPINION

Preclinical and limited early clinical studies of the new molecules of PDE5I have demonstrated encouraging results; however, safety, efficacy, and tolerability are still issues that necessitate further long-term multicenter clinical studies to ensure justification of their uses in treatment of ED and other conditions. Progress in molecular delivery techniques and tailored patient-specific management and additional therapeutic technology will dramatically improve care for ED and other conditions. The dream of ED and many other conditions becoming more effectively managed may be feasible in the near future.

The role of amino acid metabolism alterations in acute ischemic stroke: From mechanism to application

Acute ischemic stroke (AIS) is the most prevalent type of stroke, and due to its high incidence, disability rate, and mortality rate, it imposes a significant burden on the health care system. Amino acids constitute one of the most crucial metabolic products within the human body, and alterations in their metabolic pathways have been identified in the microenvironment of AIS, thereby influencing the pathogenesis, severity, and prognosis of AIS. The amino acid metabolism characteristics in AIS are complex. On one hand, the dynamic progression of AIS continuously reshapes the amino acid metabolism pattern. Conversely, changes in the amino acid metabolism pattern also exert a double-edged effect on AIS. This interaction is bidirectional, dynamic, heterogeneous, and dose-specific. Therefore, the distinctive metabolic reprogramming features surrounding amino acids during the AIS process are systematically summarized in this paper, aiming to provide potential investigative strategies for the early diagnosis, treatment approaches, and prognostic enhancement of AIS.

PDE5 inhibitors: breaking new grounds in the treatment of COVID-19

INTRODUCTION

Despite the ever-increasing occurrences of the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) cases around the world, very few medications have been validated in the clinical trials to combat COVID-19. Although several vaccines have been developed in the past quarter, the time elapsed between deployment and administration remains a major impediment.

CONTENT

Repurposing of pre-approved drugs, such as phosphodiesterase 5 (PDE5) inhibitors, could be a game-changer while lessening the burden on the current healthcare system. Repurposing and developing phosphodiesterase 5 (PDE5) inhibitors could extrapolate their utility to combat the SARS-CoV-2 infection, and potentially aid in the management of the symptoms associated with its newer variants such as BF.7, BQ.1, BQ.1.1, XBB.1.5, and XBB.1.16.

SUMMARY

Administration of PDE5 inhibitors via the oral and intravenous route demonstrates other potential off-label benefits, including anti-apoptotic, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and immunomodulatory effects, by intercepting several pathways. These effects can not only be of clinical importance in mild-to-moderate, but also moderate-to-severe SARS-CoV-2 infections. This article explores the various mechanisms by which PDE5 inhibitors alleviates the symptoms associated with COVID-19 as well as well as highlights recent studies and findings.

OUTLOOK

These benefits of PDE5 inhibitors make it a potential drug in the physicians' armamentarium in alleviating symptoms associated with SARS-CoV-2 infection. However, adequate clinical studies must be instituted to eliminate any untoward adverse events.

Investigation of NO Role in Neural Tissue in Brain and Spinal Cord Injury

Nitric oxide (NO) production in injured and intact brain regions was compared by EPR spectroscopy in a model of brain and spinal cord injury in Wistar rats. The precentral gyrus of the brain was injured, followed by the spinal cord at the level of the first lumbar vertebra. Seven days after brain injury, a reduction in NO content of 84% in injured brain regions and 66% in intact brain regions was found. The difference in NO production in injured and uninjured brain regions persisted 7 days after injury. The copper content in the brain remained unchanged one week after modeling of brain and spinal cord injury. The data obtained in the experiments help to explain the problems in the therapy of patients with combined brain injury.

PDE5 inhibitors: breaking new grounds in the treatment of COVID-19

INTRODUCTION

Despite the ever-increasing occurrences of the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) cases around the world, very few medications have been validated in the clinical trials to combat COVID-19. Although several vaccines have been developed in the past quarter, the time elapsed between deployment and administration remains a major impediment.

CONTENT

Repurposing of pre-approved drugs, such as phosphodiesterase 5 (PDE5) inhibitors, could be a game-changer while lessening the burden on the current healthcare system. Repurposing and developing phosphodiesterase 5 (PDE5) inhibitors could extrapolate their utility to combat the SARS-CoV-2 infection, and potentially aid in the management of the symptoms associated with its newer variants such as BF.7, BQ.1, BQ.1.1, XBB.1.5, and XBB.1.16.

SUMMARY

Administration of PDE5 inhibitors via the oral and intravenous route demonstrates other potential off-label benefits, including anti-apoptotic, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and immunomodulatory effects, by intercepting several pathways. These effects can not only be of clinical importance in mild-to-moderate, but also moderate-to-severe SARS-CoV-2 infections. This article explores the various mechanisms by which PDE5 inhibitors alleviates the symptoms associated with COVID-19 as well as well as highlights recent studies and findings.

OUTLOOK

These benefits of PDE5 inhibitors make it a potential drug in the physicians' armamentarium in alleviating symptoms associated with SARS-CoV-2 infection. However, adequate clinical studies must be instituted to eliminate any untoward adverse events.

The NO/cGMP/PKG pathway in platelets: The therapeutic potential of PDE5 inhibitors in platelet disorders

Platelets are the "guardians" of the blood circulatory system. At sites of vessel injury, they ensure hemostasis and promote immunity and vessel repair. However, their uncontrolled activation is one of the main drivers of thrombosis. To keep circulating platelets in a quiescent state, the endothelium releases platelet antagonists including nitric oxide (NO) that acts by stimulating the intracellular receptor guanylyl cyclase (GC). The latter produces the second messenger cyclic guanosine-3',5'-monophosphate (cGMP) that inhibits platelet activation by stimulating protein kinase G, which phosphorylates hundreds of intracellular targets. Intracellular cGMP pools are tightly regulated by a fine balance between GC and phosphodiesterases (PDEs) that are responsible for the hydrolysis of cyclic nucleotides. Phosphodiesterase type 5 (PDE5) is a cGMP-specific PDE, broadly expressed in most tissues in humans and rodents. In clinical practice, PDE5 inhibitors (PDE5i) are used as first-line therapy for erectile dysfunction, pulmonary artery hypertension, and lower urinary tract symptoms. However, several studies have shown that PDE5i may ameliorate the outcome of various other conditions, like heart failure and stroke. Interestingly, NO donors and cGMP analogs increase the capacity of anti-platelet drugs targeting the purinergic receptor type Y, subtype 12 (P2Y12) receptor to block platelet aggregation, and preclinical studies have shown that PDE5i inhibits platelet functions. This review summarizes the molecular mechanisms underlying the effect of PDE5i on platelet activation and aggregation focusing on the therapeutic potential of PDE5i in platelet disorders, and the outcomes of a combined therapy with PDE5i and NO donors to inhibit platelet activation.

Non-invasive brain stimulation as therapeutic approach for ischemic stroke: Insights into the (sub)cellular mechanisms

Although spontaneous recovery can occur following ischemic stroke due to endogenous neuronal reorganization and neuroplastic events, the degree of functional improvement is highly variable, causing many patients to remain permanently impaired. In the last decades, non-invasive brain stimulation (NIBS) techniques have emerged as potential add-on interventions to the standard neurorehabilitation programs to improve post-stroke recovery. Due to their ability to modulate cortical excitability and to induce neuroreparative processes in the brain, multiple studies have assessed the safety, efficacy and (sub)cellular mechanisms of NIBS following ischemic stroke. In this review, an overview will be provided of the different NIBS techniques that are currently being investigated in (pre)clinical stroke studies. The NIBS therapies that will be discussed include transcranial magnetic stimulation, transcranial direct current stimulation and extremely low frequency electromagnetic stimulation. First, an overview will be given of the cellular mechanisms induced by NIBS that are associated with enhanced stroke outcome in preclinical models. Furthermore, the current knowledge on safety and efficacy of these NIBS techniques in stroke patients will be reviewed.

Extremely low frequency electromagnetic stimulation reduces ischemic stroke volume by improving cerebral collateral blood flow

Extremely low frequency electromagnetic stimulation (ELF-EMS) has been considered as a neuroprotective therapy for ischemic stroke based on its capacity to induce nitric oxide (NO) signaling. Here, we examined whether ELF-EMS reduces ischemic stroke volume by stimulating cerebral collateral perfusion. Moreover, the pathway responsible for ELF-EMS-induced NO production was investigated. ELF-EMS diminished infarct growth following experimental stroke in collateral-rich C57BL/6 mice, but not in collateral-scarce BALB/c mice, suggesting that decreased lesion sizes after ELF-EMS results from improved collateral blood flow. In vitro analysis demonstrated that ELF-EMS increased endothelial NO levels by stimulating the Akt-/eNOS pathway. Furthermore, ELF-EMS augmented perfusion in the hind limb of healthy mice, which was mediated by enhanced Akt-/eNOS signaling. In healthy C57BL/6 mouse brains, ELF-EMS treatment increased cerebral blood flow in a NOS-dependent manner, whereas no improvement in cerebrovascular perfusion was observed in collateral-sparse BALB/c mice. In addition, ELF-EMS enhanced cerebral blood flow in both the contra- and ipsilateral hemispheres of C57BL/6 mice subjected to experimental ischemic stroke. In conclusion, we showed that ELF-EMS enhances (cerebro)vascular perfusion by stimulating NO production, indicating that ELF-EMS could be an attractive therapeutic strategy for acute ischemic stroke by improving cerebral collateral blood flow.

The Association of Suppressed Hypoxia-Inducible Factor-1 Transactivation of Angiogenesis With Defective Recovery From Cerebral Ischemic Injury in Aged Rats

Elderly patients suffer more brain damage in comparison with young patients from the same ischemic stroke. The present study was undertaken to test the hypothesis that suppressed hypoxia-inducible factor-1 (HIF-1) transcription activity is responsible for defective recovery after ischemic stroke in the elders. Aged and young rats underwent 1-h transient middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) to produce cerebral ischemic injury. The initial cerebral infarct volume in the young gradually declined as time elapsed, but in the aged rats remained the same. The defective recovery in the aged was associated with depressed angiogenesis and retarded neurorestoration. There was no difference in HIF-1α accumulation in the brain between the two age groups, but the expression of HIF-1 regulated genes involved in cerebral recovery was suppressed in the aged. In confirmation, inhibition of HIF-1 transactivation of gene expression in the young suppressed cerebral recovery from MCAO as the same as that observed in the aged rats. Furthermore, a copper metabolism MURR domain 1 (COMMD1) was significantly elevated after MCAO only in the brain of aged rats, and suppression of COMMD1 by siRNA targeting COMMD1 restored HIF-1 transactivation and improved recovery from MCAO-induced damage in the aged brain. These results demonstrate that impaired HIF-1 transcription activity, due at least partially to overexpression of COMMD1, is associated with the defective cerebral recovery from ischemic stroke in the aged rats.

Phosphodiesterase 5 (PDE5): Structure-function regulation and therapeutic applications of inhibitors

Phosphodiesterase 5 (PDE5) is one of the most well-studied phosphodiesterases (PDEs) that specifically targets cGMP typically generated by nitric oxide (NO)-mediated activation of the soluble guanylyl cyclase. Given the crucial role of cGMP generated through the activation of this cellular signaling pathway in a variety of physiologically processes, pharmacological inhibition of PDE5 has been demonstrated to have several therapeutic applications including erectile dysfunction and pulmonary arterial hypertension. While they are designed to inhibit PDE5, the inhibitors show different affinities and specificities against all PDE subtypes. Additionally, they have been shown to induce allosteric structural changes in the protein. These are mostly attributed to their chemical structure and, therefore, binding interactions with PDE catalytic domains. Therefore, understanding how these inhibitors interact with PDE5 and the structural basis of their selectivity is critically important for the design of novel, highly selective PDE5 inhibitors. Here, we review the structure of PDE5, how its function is regulated, and discuss the clinically available inhibitors that target phosphodiesterase 5, aiming to better understand the structural bases of their affinity and specificity. We also discuss the therapeutic indications of these inhibitors and the potential of repurposing for a wider range of clinical applications.

Kinematic Changes in a Mouse Model of Penetrating Hippocampal Injury and Their Recovery After Intranasal Administration of Endometrial Mesenchymal Stem Cell-Derived Extracellular Vesicles

Locomotion speed changes appear following hippocampal injury. We used a hippocampal penetrating brain injury mouse model to analyze other kinematic changes. We found a significant decrease in locomotion speed in both open-field and tunnel walk tests. We described a new quantitative method that allows us to analyze and compare the displacement curves between mice steps. In the tunnel walk, we marked mice with indelible ink on the knee, ankle, and metatarsus of the left and right hindlimbs to evaluate both in every step. Animals with hippocampal damage exhibit slower locomotion speed in both hindlimbs. In contrast, in the cortical injured group, we observed significant speed decrease only in the right hindlimb. We found changes in the displacement patterns after hippocampal injury. Mesenchymal stem cell-derived extracellular vesicles had been used for the treatment of several diseases in animal models. Here, we evaluated the effects of intranasal administration of endometrial mesenchymal stem cell-derived extracellular vesicles on the outcome after the hippocampal injury. We report the presence of vascular endothelial growth factor, granulocyte–macrophage colony-stimulating factor, and interleukin 6 in these vesicles. We observed locomotion speed and displacement pattern preservation in mice after vesicle treatment. These mice had lower pyknotic cells percentage and a smaller damaged area in comparison with the nontreated group, probably due to angiogenesis, wound repair, and inflammation decrease. Our results build up on the evidence of the hippocampal role in walk control and suggest that the extracellular vesicles could confer neuroprotection to the damaged hippocampus.

Updates on Versatile Role of Putative Gasotransmitter Nitric Oxide: Culprit in Neurodegenerative Disease Pathology

Nitric oxide (NO) is a versatile gasotransmitter that contributes in a range of physiological and pathological mechanims depending on its cellular levels. An appropriate concentration of NO is essentially required for cellular physiology; however, its increased level triggers pathological mechanisms like altered cellular redox regulation, functional impairment of mitochondrion, and modifications in cellular proteins and DNA. Its increased levels also exhibit post-translational modifications in protein through S-nitrosylation of their thiol amino acids, which critically affect the cellular physiology. Along with such modifications, NO could also nitrosylate the endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-membrane located sensors of ER stress, which subsequently affect the cellular protein degradation capacity and lead to aggregation of misfolded/unfolded proteins. Since protein aggregation is one of the pathological hallmarks of neurodegenerative disease, NO should be taken into account during development of disease therapies. In this Review, we shed light on the diverse role of NO in both cellular physiology and pathology and discussed its involvement in various pathological events in the context of neurodegenerative diseases.

Established and emerging therapeutic uses of PDE type 5 inhibitors in cardiovascular disease

PDE type 5 inhibitors (PDE5Is), such as sildenafil, tadalafil and vardenafil, are a class of drugs used to prolong the physiological effects of NO/cGMP signalling in tissues through the inhibition of cGMP degradation. Although these agents were originally developed for the treatment of hypertension and angina, unanticipated side effects led to advances in the treatment of erectile dysfunction and, later, pulmonary arterial hypertension. In the last decade, accumulating evidence suggests that PDE5Is may confer a wider range of clinical benefits than was previously recognised. This has led to a broader interest in the cardiovascular therapeutic potential of PDE5Is, in conditions such as hypertension, myocardial infarction, stroke, peripheral arterial disease, chronic kidney disease and diabetes mellitus. Here, we review the pharmacological properties and established licensed uses of this class of drug, along with emerging therapeutic developments and possible future indications.

Non-pulsed Sinusoidal Electromagnetic Field Rescues Animals From Severe Ischemic Stroke via NO Activation

Despite the high prevalence and devastating outcome, only a few treatment options for cerebral ischemic stroke exist. Based on the nitric oxide (NO)-stimulating capacity of Non-pulsed Sinusoidal Electromagnetic Field (NP-SEMF) and the possible neuroprotective role of NO in ischemic stroke, we hypothesized that NP-SEMF is able to enhance survival and neurological outcome in a rat model of cerebral ischemia. The animals, in which ischemic injury was induced by occlusion of both common carotid arteries, received 20 min of NP-SEMF of either 10 or 60 Hz daily for 4 days. NP-SEMF dramatically increased survival, reduced the size of the infarcted brain area and significantly improved the neurological score of the surviving rats. Corresponding to previous reports, NP-SEMF was able to induce NO production in vitro. The importance of NO as a key signaling molecule was highlighted by inhibition of the NP-SEMF beneficial effects in the rat stroke model after blocking NO synthase (NOS). Our results indicate for the first time that NP-SEMF exposure (13.5 mT at 60 and 10 Hz) improves the survival and neurological outcome of rats subjected to cerebral ischemia and that this effect is mediated by NO, underlining the great therapeutic potential of NP-SEMF as a therapy for ischemic stroke.

Combined Biomarkers Composed of Environment and Genetic Factors in Stroke

It was widely accepted that stroke onset was the result of interactions between environment and genetic factors. However, the combined biomarkers covering environment and genetic factors and their interplay information in stroke were still lacking. In this study, we proposed a framework to identify the targeting or indicating role each factor played in the combined stroke biomarkers. A combined set of 36 biomarkers were identified based on evaluation and importance scores. Validations on three independent microarray data sets justified that the obtained markers were pervasively effective in discriminating stroke patients of different stages from healthy people on genetic levels. 8 and 3 genetic factors were identified as biomarkers in the acute and recovery phases of stroke, respectively. For example, the expression changing of SERPINH1 only appeared in the acute phase of stroke showing its targeting role in the combined biomarker. Compared with this, 11 genetic factors such as MMP9 were found to be differentially expressed in both acute and recovery phases of stroke showing their indicating roles in stroke. Functional analyses further revealed that the biomarkers could be grouped into 4 closely related processes of stroke including prevention, occurrence, processing, and recovery, respectively. These results indicated that the adoption of interactions between environment and genetic factors would be helpful in selecting robust and biologically relevant biomarkers, which cast a new insight for stroke biomarker identification.

Sex differences in the brain: Implications for behavioral and biomedical research

Biological differences between males and females are found at multiple levels. However, females have too often been under-represented in behavioral neuroscience research, which has stymied the study of potential sex differences in neurobiology and behavior. This review focuses on the study of sex differences in the neurobiology of social behavior, memory, emotions, and recovery from brain injury, with particular emphasis on the role of estrogens in regulating forebrain function. This work, presented by the authors at the 2016 meeting of the International Behavioral Neuroscience Society, emphasizes varying approaches from several mammalian species in which sex differences have not only been documented, but also become the focus of efforts to understand the mechanistic basis underlying them. This information may provide readers with useful experimental tools to successfully address recently introduced regulations by granting agencies that either require (e.g. the National Institutes of Health in the United States and the Canadian Institutes of Health Research in Canada) or recommend (e.g. Horizon 2020 in Europe) the inclusion of both sexes in biomedical research.

Sex differences in stroke therapies

Stroke is the fifth leading cause of death and acquired disability in aged populations. Women are disproportionally affected by stroke, having a higher incidence and worse outcomes than men. Numerous preclinical studies have discovered novel therapies for the treatment of stroke, but almost all of these have been shown to be unsuccessful in clinical trials. Despite known sex differences in occurrence and severity of stroke, few preclinical or clinical therapeutics take into account possible sex differences in treatment. Reanalysis of data from studies of tissue plasminogen activator (tPA), the only currently FDA-approved stroke therapy, has shown that tPA improves stroke outcomes for both sexes and also shows sexual dimorphism by more robust improvement in stroke outcome in females. Experimental evidence supports the inclusion of sex as a variable in the study of a number of novel stroke drugs and therapies, including preclinical studies of anti-inflammatory drugs (minocycline), stimulators of cell survival (insulin-like growth factor-1), and inhibitors of cell death pathways (pharmacological inhibition of poly[ADP-ribose] polymerase-1, nitric oxide production, and caspase activation) as well as in current clinical trials of stem cell therapy and cortical stimulation. Overall, study design and analysis in clinical trials as well as in preclinical studies must include both sexes equally, consider possible sex differences in the analyses, and report the differences/similarities in more systematic/structured ways to allow promising therapies for both sexes and increase stroke recovery. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Anti-inflammation Effects of Oxysophoridine on Cerebral Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury in Mice

Oxysophoridine (OSR) is a bioactive alkaloid extracted from the Sophora alopecuroides Linn. Our aim is to explore the potential anti-inflammation mechanism of OSR in cerebral ischemic injury. Mice were intraperitoneally pretreated with OSR (62.5, 125, and 250 mg/kg) or nimodipine (Nim) (6 mg/kg) for 7 days followed by cerebral ischemia. The inflammatory-related cytokines in cerebral ischemic hemisphere tissue were determined by immunohistochemistry staining, Western blot and enzyme-like immunosorbent assay (ELISA). OSR-treated groups observably suppressed the nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB), intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1), inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2). OSR-treated group (250 mg/kg) markedly reduced the inflammatory-related protein prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), interleukin-1β (IL-1β), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and interleukin-8 (IL-8). Meanwhile, it dramatically increased the interleukin-10 (IL-10). Our study revealed that OSR protected neurons from ischemia-induced injury in mice by downregulating the proinflammatory cytokines and blocking the NF-κB pathway.

Inhibition of the NMDA receptor protects the rat sciatic nerve against ischemia/reperfusion injury

Inhibition of the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor by MK-801 reduces ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury in the central nervous system. However, few previous studies have evaluated the neuroprotective effects of MK-801 against peripheral I/R injury. The present study aimed to investigate the protective effects of MK-801 pretreatment against I/R injury in the rat sciatic nerve (SN). Sprague-Dawley rats were subjected to a sham surgery (n=8) or to a 5-h ischemic insult by femoral artery clamping (I/R and I/R+MK-801 groups; n=48 per group). I/R+MK-801 rats were intraperitoneally injected with MK-801 (0.5 ml or 1 mg/kg) at 15 min prior to reperfusion. The rats were sacrificed at 0, 6, 12, 24, 72 h, or 7 days following reperfusion. Plasma malondialdehyde (MDA) and nitric oxide (NO) concentrations, and SN inducible NO synthase (iNOS) protein expression levels, were measured using colorimetry. In addition, the protein expression levels of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) were measured using immunohistochemistry, and histological analyses of the rat SN were conducted using light and electron microscopy. Alterations in the mRNA expression levels of TNF-α and TNF-α converting enzyme (TACE) in the rat SN were detected using reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction. In the I/R group, plasma concentrations of NO (175.3±4.2 µmol/l) and MDA (16.2±1.9 mmol/l), and the levels of iNOS (2.5±0.3) in the SN, peaked at 24 h post-reperfusion. At 24 h, pretreatment with MK-801 significantly reduced plasma NO (107.3±3.6 µmol/l) and MDA (11.8±1.6 mmol/l), and SN iNOS (1.65±0.2) levels (all P<0.01). The mRNA expression levels of TNF-α and TACE in the SN were significantly reduced in the I/R+MK-801 group, as compared with the I/R group (P<0.05). Furthermore, MK-801 pretreatment was shown to have alleviated histological signs of I/R injury, including immune cell infiltration and axon demyelination. The results of the present study suggested that pretreatment with MK-801 may alleviate I/R injury of the SN by inhibiting the activation of TNF-α and reducing the levels of iNOS in the SN.

Mechanisms of cell-cell interaction in oligodendrogenesis and remyelination after stroke

White matter damage is a clinically important aspect of several central nervous system diseases, including stroke. Cerebral white matter primarily consists of axonal bundles ensheathed with myelin secreted by mature oligodendrocytes, which play an important role in neurotransmission between different areas of gray matter. During the acute phase of stroke, damage to oligodendrocytes leads to white matter dysfunction through the loss of myelin. On the contrary, during the chronic phase, white matter components promote an environment, which is favorable for neural repair, vascular remodeling, and remyelination. For effective remyelination to take place, oligodendrocyte precursor cells (OPCs) play critical roles by proliferating and differentiating into mature oligodendrocytes, which help to decrease the burden of axonal injury. Notably, other types of cells contribute to these OPC responses under the ischemic conditions. This mini-review summarizes the non-cell autonomous mechanisms in oligodendrogenesis and remyelination after white matter damage, focusing on how OPCs receive support from their neighboring cells. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled SI: Cell Interactions In Stroke.

Promoting endothelial function by S-nitrosoglutathione through the HIF-1α/VEGF pathway stimulates neurorepair and functional recovery following experimental stroke in rats

Background

For stroke patients, stimulating neurorepair mechanisms is necessary to reduce morbidity and disability. Our previous studies on brain and spinal cord trauma show that exogenous treatment with the S-nitrosylating agent S-nitrosoglutathione (GSNO) – a nitric oxide and glutathione metabolite of the human body – stimulates neurorepair and aids functional recovery. Using a rat model of cerebral ischemia and reperfusion (IR) in this study, we tested the hypothesis that GSNO invokes the neurorepair process and improves neurobehavioral functions through the angiogenic HIF-1α/VEGF pathway.

Methods

Stroke was induced by middle cerebral artery occlusion for 60 minutes followed by reperfusion in adult male rats. The injured animals were treated with saline (IR group, n=7), GSNO (0.25 mg/kg, GSNO group, n=7), and GSNO plus the HIF-1α inhibitor 2-methoxyestra-diol (2-ME) (0.25 mg/kg GSNO + 5.0 mg/kg 2-ME, GSNO + 2-ME group, n=7). The groups were studied for either 7 or 14 days to determine neurorepair mediators and functional recovery. Brain capillary endothelial cells were used to show that GSNO promotes angiogenesis and that GSNO-mediated induction of VEGF and the stimulation of angiogenesis are dependent on HIF-1α activity.

Results

IR injury increased the expression of neurorepair mediators HIF-1α, VEGF, and PECAM-1 and vessel markers to a limited degree that correlate well with significantly compromised neurobehavioral functions compared with sham animals. GSNO treatment of IR not only remarkably enhanced further the expression of HIF-1α, VEGF, and PECAM-1 but also improved functioning compared with IR. The GSNO group also had a higher degree of vessel density than the IR group. Increased expression of VEGF and the degree of tube formation (angiogenesis) by GSNO were reduced after the inhibition of HIF-1α by 2-ME in an endothelial cell culture model. 2-ME treatment of the GSNO group also blocked not only GSNO’s effect of reduced infarct volume, decreased neuronal loss, and enhanced expression of PECAM-1 (P<0.001), but also its improvement of motor and neurological functions (P<0.001).

Conclusion

GSNO stimulates the process of neurorepair, promotes angiogenesis, and aids functional recovery through the HIF-1α-dependent pathway, showing therapeutic and translational promise for stroke.

Nitric oxide from inflammatory origin impairs neural stem cell proliferation by inhibiting epidermal growth factor receptor signaling

Neuroinflammation is characterized by activation of microglial cells, followed by production of nitric oxide (NO), which may have different outcomes on neurogenesis, favoring or inhibiting this process. In the present study, we investigated how the inflammatory mediator NO can affect proliferation of neural stem cells (NSCs), and explored possible mechanisms underlying this effect. We investigated which mechanisms are involved in the regulation of NSC proliferation following treatment with an inflammatory stimulus (lipopolysaccharide plus IFN-γ), using a culture system of subventricular zone (SVZ)-derived NSCs mixed with microglia cells obtained from wild-type mice (iNOS(+/+)) or from iNOS knockout mice (iNOS(-/-)). We found an impairment of NSC cell proliferation in iNOS(+/+) mixed cultures, which was not observed in iNOS(-/-) mixed cultures. Furthermore, the increased release of NO by activated iNOS(+/+) microglial cells decreased the activation of the ERK/MAPK signaling pathway, which was concomitant with an enhanced nitration of the EGF receptor. Preventing nitrogen reactive species formation with MnTBAP, a scavenger of peroxynitrite (ONOO(-)), or using the ONOO(-) degradation catalyst FeTMPyP, cell proliferation and ERK signaling were restored to basal levels in iNOS(+/+) mixed cultures. Moreover, exposure to the NO donor NOC-18 (100 μM), for 48 h, inhibited SVZ-derived NSC proliferation. Regarding the antiproliferative effect of NO, we found that NOC-18 caused the impairment of signaling through the ERK/MAPK pathway, which may be related to increased nitration of the EGF receptor in NSC. Using MnTBAP nitration was prevented, maintaining ERK signaling, rescuing NSC proliferation. We show that NO from inflammatory origin leads to a decreased function of the EGF receptor, which compromised proliferation of NSC. We also demonstrated that NO-mediated nitration of the EGF receptor caused a decrease in its phosphorylation, thus preventing regular proliferation signaling through the ERK/MAPK pathway.