Galanin receptor subtypes 1 and 2 as therapeutic targets in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma

New insights into RAS in head and neck cancer

RAS genes are known to be dysregulated in cancer for several decades, and substantial effort has been dedicated to develop agents that reduce RAS expression or block RAS activation. The recent introduction of RAS inhibitors for cancer patients highlights the importance of comprehending RAS alterations in head and neck cancer (HNC). In this regard, we examine the published findings on RAS alterations and pathway activations in HNC, and summarize their role in HNC initiation, progression, and metastasis. Specifically, we focus on the intrinsic role of mutated-RAS on tumor cell signaling and its extrinsic role in determining tumor-microenvironment (TME) heterogeneity, including promoting angiogenesis and enhancing immune escape. Lastly, we summarize the intrinsic and extrinsic role of RAS alterations on therapy resistance to outline the potential of targeting RAS using a single agent or in combination with other therapeutic agents for HNC patients with RAS-activated tumors.

The Galaninergic System: A Target for Cancer Treatment

The aim of this review is to show the involvement of the galaninergic system in neuroendocrine (phaeochromocytomas, insulinomas, neuroblastic tumors, pituitary tumors, small-cell lung cancer) and non-neuroendocrine (gastric cancer, colorectal cancer, head and neck squamous cell carcinoma, glioma) tumors. The galaninergic system is involved in tumorigenesis, invasion/migration of tumor cells and angiogenesis, and this system has been correlated with tumor size/stage/subtypes, metastasis and recurrence rate. In the galaninergic system, epigenetic mechanisms have been related with carcinogenesis and recurrence rate. Galanin (GAL) exerts both proliferative and antiproliferative actions in tumor cells. GAL receptors (GALRs) mediate different signal transduction pathways and actions, depending on the particular G protein involved and the tumor cell type. In general, the activation of GAL1R promoted an antiproliferative effect, whereas the activation of GAL2R induced antiproliferative or proliferative actions. GALRs could be used in certain tumors as therapeutic targets and diagnostic markers for treatment, prognosis and surgical outcome. The current data show the importance of the galaninergic system in the development of certain tumors and suggest future potential clinical antitumor applications using GAL agonists or antagonists.

Neuropeptide receptor genes GHSR and NMUR1 are candidate epigenetic biomarkers and predictors for surgically treated patients with oropharyngeal cancer

Pathological staging and histological grading systems are useful, but imperfect, predictors of recurrence in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC). Aberrant promoter methylation is the main type of epigenetic modification that plays a role in the inactivation of tumor suppressor genes. To identify new potential prognostic markers, we investigated the promoter methylation status of five neuropeptide receptor genes. The methylation status of the target genes was compared with clinical characteristics in 278 cases; 72 hypopharyngeal cancers, 54 laryngeal cancers, 75 oropharyngeal cancers, and 77 oral cavity cancers were studied. We found that the NTSR1, NTSR2, GHSR, MLNR, and NMUR1 promoters were methylated in 47.8%, 46.8%, 54.3%, 39.2%, and 43.5% of the samples, respectively. GHSR and NMUR1 promoter methylation independently predicted recurrence in HNSCC. In patients with oropharyngeal cancer (n = 75), GHSR and NMUR1 promoter methylation significantly correlates with survival in surgically treated patients. We classified our patients as having a low, intermediate, or high-risk of death based on three factors: HPV status, and GHSR and NMUR1 promoter methylation. The disease-free survival (DFS) rates were 87.1%, 42.7%, and 17.0%, respectively. Combined data analysis of the methylation status of ten-eleven translocation (TET) family genes indicated a trend toward greater methylation indices as the number of TET methylation events increased. In the current study, we presented the relationship between the methylation status of the GHSR and NMUR1 genes and recurrence in HNSCC, specifically in risk classification of oropharyngeal carcinomas cases with HPV status.

Promoter methylation of galanin receptors as epigenetic biomarkers for head and neck squamous cell carcinomas

INTRODUCTION

While remarkable progress has been made in standard treatments for head and neck squamous cell carcinomas (HNSCCs), the long-term survival remains at an unsatisfactory 40-50%. To improve the survival rate, biomarkers for optimal treatment selection and prognostic prediction, as well as novel, low-toxicity treatment strategies, are required. Galanin receptor (GALR) 1 and GALR2 are well-studied tumor suppressors in HNSCCs. Compared with other clinicopathological factors, the epigenetic variants of GALRs have been found to be the most powerful markers to predict the prognosis of HNSCC patients. Areas covered: This review outlines the functions and signaling pathways of GALRs and explains the potential of GALR promoter methylation as a biomarker for HNSCC prognosis. We also summarize recent developments in promoter methylation studies in HNSCC and indicate future directions for GALR promoter methylation studies. Expert commentary: GALR studies have highlighted two major aspects with implications in HNSCC - that G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) act as tumor suppressor genes and that GALR promoter methylation is significantly related to the carcinogenesis of HNSCC. The findings of GALR studies can be applied to studies on other GPCRs and further in-depth DNA methylation studies. Deeper insights into GPCR epigenetics are expected to markedly improve HNSCC treatment.

Epigenetics of oral and oropharyngeal cancers

Oral and oropharyngeal cancers represent the two most common malignancies of the head and neck region. The major risk factors for these cancers include alcohol consumption, tobacco use (via smoking or chewing) and high-risk human papillomavirus infection. The transition from normal epithelium to premalignant tissue and finally carcinoma is in part caused by a summation of genetic and epigenetic modifications. Epigenetic refers to modifications in the way the genome is expressed in cells. The most common examples of epigenetic control of gene expression are DNA methylation, histone modification and regulation by small non-coding RNAs. The aim of the current paper was to review the recent studies on the main epigenetic changes that have been suggested to serve a role in the carcinogenesis process and progression of oral and oropharyngeal cancers. Furthermore, it is discussed how the epigenetic changes may be used as potential predictive biomarkers and how recent findings in the field may impact the personalized cancer therapy approach for these tumors.

Neuroendocrine Factors and Head and Neck Squamous Cell Carcinoma: An Affair to Remember

Head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) is one of the most aggressive malignancies. Therefore, the major goal of cancer treatment is inhibition of tumor cell growth and of metastasis development. In order to choose the best management option for HNSCC patients, we need to identify reliable prognostic factors and to develop new molecular techniques in order to obtain a better understanding of therapy resistance. By acting as neurohormones, neurotransmitters, or neuromodulators, the neuroendocrine factors are able to signal the maintenance of physiological homeostasis or progression to malignant disease. Certain neuropeptides possess strong antitumor properties acting as tumor suppressors and immunomodulators, providing additional benefits for future potential therapeutic strategies. In light of the current understanding, cancer starts as a localized disease that can be effectively treated if discovered on proper time. Unfortunately, more than often cancer cells migrate to the surrounding tissues generating distant metastases, thus making the prognosis and survival in this stage much worse. As cellular migration is mandatory for tumor invasion and metastasis development, searching for alternate controllers of these processes, such as the neuroendocrine factors, it is an active tremendous task.

Epigenetic inactivation of galanin receptors in salivary duct carcinoma of the parotid gland: Potential utility as biomarkers for prognosis

Salivary duct carcinoma (SDC) constitutes one of the most aggressive cancers in the salivary gland and is associated with a poor prognosis; however, no established systemic therapy options are available. SDC exhibits biological similarity to prostate and breast cancers, therefore anti-hormone therapy and molecular target therapies are available, however with limited beneficial effects. Galanin and galanin receptors (GALRs) are well established as molecular biomarkers to predict the survival rate and risk of recurrence of head and neck squamous cell carcinoma. The present study investigated the clinicopathological features of patients with SDC and the methylation status of their galanin and GALR genes to demonstrate the prognostic value for this disease. The median overall survival (OS) was 37.2 months. T-stage, N-stage, disease stage, tumor size, and preoperative facial paralysis were significantly associated with OS, whereas human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2) overexpression was not. GALR1 and GALR2 methylation rates in tumor tissues were significantly increased compared with normal tissues with 9.85- and 4.49-fold increase, respectively. p27^kip1 and p57^kip2 expression significantly inversely correlated with the methylation rate of GALR1 and GALR2. In addition, the observed GALR1 and/or GALR2 methylation rates were significantly correlated with a decrease in OS. These results suggest that GALR1 and GALR2 may serve as potential prognostic factors and therapeutic targets in SDC.

Genes encoding neuropeptide receptors are epigenetic markers in patients with head and neck cancer: a site-specific analysis

Staging and pathological grading systems are useful but imperfect predictors of recurrence in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC). To identify potential prognostic markers, we examined the methylation status of eight neuropeptide receptor gene promoters in 231 head and neck squamous cell carcinomas. The NPFFR1, NPFFR2, HCRTR1, HCRTR2, NPY1R, NPY2R, NPY4R, and NPY5R promoters were methylated in 80.5%, 79.2%, 67.1%, 73.2%, 35.1%, 36.4%, 38.5%, and 35.9% of the samples, respectively. In a multivariate Cox proportional hazards analysis, the odds ratio for recurrence was 2.044 (95% confidence interval [CI], 1.323–3.156; P = 0.001) when the NPY2R promoter was methylated. In patients without lymph node metastasis (n = 100), methylation of NPY2R (compared with methylation of the other seven genes) best correlated with poor disease-free survival (DFS) (odds ratio, 2.492; 95% CI, 1.190–5.215; P = 0.015). In patients with oral cancer (n = 69), methylated NPY1R and NPY2R were independent prognostic factors for poor DFS, both individually and, even more so, in combination (odds ratio, 3.90; 95% CI, 1.523–9.991; P = 0.005). Similar findings were observed for NPY2R and NPY4R in patients with oropharyngeal cancer (n = 162) (odds ratio, 5.663; 95% CI, 1.507–21.28; P = 0.010).

Epigenetic inactivation of galanin and GALR1/2 is associated with early recurrence in head and neck cancer

The aim of this study was to investigate the prognostic value of galanin (GAL) and galanin receptor (GALR) promoter hypermethylation in patients with head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC). The methylation status of three genes-GAL, GALR1, and GALR2 was examined in HNSCC patient tumors using quantitative methylation-specific PCR (Q-MSP). To determine the prognostic value of GAL, GALR1 and GALR2 methylation status, their associations with various clinical characteristics and patient survival were assessed in HNSCC patient tumors (n = 142). Aberrant methylation of at least one gene was observed in 84 of the 142 (59.2 %) primary tumors analyzed. The methylation index, defined as the ratio between the number of methylated genes and the number of genes examined, was positively correlated with larger tumor size (P = 0.034) and disease recurrence (P < 0.001). In the multivariate logistic-regression analysis, methylation of both GAL and GALR1 exhibited the highest association with poor survival (hazard ratio, 6.83, P = 0.002). Moreover, among patients without lymph node metastasis, a multivariate analysis showed a significant trend for poor survival as the number of hypermethylated genes increased (log-rank test, P = 0.003). CpG hypermethylation is a likely mechanism of GAL and GALR1/2 gene inactivation, indicating that GAL and its receptors play a role in HNSCC tumorigenesis. As such, GAL and GALR1/2 methylation status may serve as an important biomarker for clinical outcome.

G-Protein-Coupled Receptors: Next Generation Therapeutic Targets in Head and Neck Cancer?

Therapeutic outcome in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) is poor in most advanced cases. To improve therapeutic efficiency, novel therapeutic targets and prognostic factors must be discovered. Our studies have identified several G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) as promising candidates. Significant epigenetic silencing of GPCR expression occurs in HNSCC compared with normal tissue, and is significantly correlated with clinical behavior. Together with the finding that GPCR activity can suppress tumor cell growth, this indicates that GPCR expression has potential utility as a prognostic factor. In this review, we discuss the roles that galanin receptor type 1 (GALR1) and type 2 (GALR2), tachykinin receptor type 1 (TACR1), and somatostatin receptor type 1 (SST1) play in HNSCC. GALR1 inhibits proliferation of HNSCC cells though ERK1/2-mediated effects on cell cycle control proteins such as p27, p57, and cyclin D1, whereas GALR2 inhibits cell proliferation and induces apoptosis in HNSCC cells. Hypermethylation of GALR1, GALR2, TACR1, and SST1 is associated with significantly reduced disease-free survival and a higher recurrence rate. Although their overall activities varies, each of these GPCRs has value as both a prognostic factor and a therapeutic target. These data indicate that further study of GPCRs is a promising strategy that will enrich pharmacogenomics and prognostic research in HNSCC.

Aberrant methylation inactivates somatostatin and somatostatin receptor type 1 in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma

PURPOSE

The aim of this study was to define somatostatin (SST) and somatostatin receptor type 1 (SSTR1) methylation profiles for head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) tumors at diagnosis and follow up and to evaluate their prognostic significance and value as a biomarker.

METHODS

Gene expression was measured by quantitative RT-PCR. Promoter methylation status was determined by quantitative methylation-specific PCR (Q-MSP) in HNSCC.

RESULTS

Methylation was associated with transcription inhibition. SST methylation in 81% of HNSCC tumor specimens significantly correlated with tumor size (P = 0.043), stage (P = 0.008), galanin receptor type 2 (GALR2) methylation (P = 0.041), and tachykinin-1 (TAC1) (P = 0.040). SSTR1 hypermethylation in 64% of cases was correlated with tumor size (P = 0.037), stage (P = 0.037), SST methylation (P < 0.001), and expression of galanin (P = 0.03), GALR2 (P = 0.014), TAC1 (P = 0.023), and tachykinin receptor type 1 (TACR1) (P = 0.003). SST and SSTR1 promoter hypermethylation showed highly discriminating receiver operator characteristic curve profiles, which clearly distinguished HNSCC from adjacent normal mucosal tissues. Concurrent hypermethylation of galanin and SSTR1 promoters correlated with reduced disease-free survival (log-rank test, P = 0.0001). Among patients with oral cavity and oropharynx cancer, methylation of both SST and SSTR1 promoters correlated with reduced disease-free survival (log-rank test, P = 0.028). In multivariate logistic-regression analysis, concomitant methylation of galanin and SSTR1 was associated with an odds ratio for recurrence of 12.53 (95% CI, 2.62 to 59.8; P = 0.002).

CONCLUSIONS

CpG hypermethylation is a likely mechanism of SST and SSTR1 gene inactivation, supporting the hypothesis that SST and SSTR1 play a role in the tumorigenesis of HNSCC and that this hypermethylation may serve as an important biomarker.

Novel anti-tumor mechanism of galanin receptor type 2 in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma cells

Galanin and its receptors, GALR1 and GALR2, are known tumor suppressors and potential therapeutic targets in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC). Previously, we demonstrated that, in GALR1-expressing HNSCC cells, the addition of galanin suppressed tumor proliferation via upregulation of ERK1/2 and cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitors, whereas, in GALR2-expressing cells, the addition of galanin not only suppressed proliferation, but also induced apoptosis. In this study, we first transduced HEp-2 and KB cell lines using a recombinant adeno-associated virus (rAAV)-green fluorescent protein (GFP) vector and confirmed a high GFP expression rate (>90%) in both cell lines at the standard vector dose. Next, we demonstrated that GALR2 expression in the presence of galanin suppressed cell viability to 40-60% after 72 h in both cell lines. Additionally, the annexin V-positive rate and sub-G0/G1 phase population were significantly elevated in HEp-2 cells (mock vs GALR2: 12.3 vs 25.0% (P < 0.01) and 9.1 vs 32.0% (P < 0.05), respectively) after 48 h. These changes were also observed in KB cells, although to a lesser extent. Furthermore, in HEp-2 cells, GALR2-mediated apoptosis was caspase-independent, involving downregulation of ERK1/2, followed by induction of the pro-apoptotic Bcl-2 protein, Bim. These results illustrate that transient GALR2 expression in the presence of galanin induces apoptosis via diverse pathways and serves as a platform for suicide gene therapy against HNSCC.

Unique DNA methylation loci distinguish anatomic site and HPV status in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma

PURPOSE

We have used a genome-wide approach to identify novel differentially methylated CpG dinucleotides that are seen in different anatomic sites of head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC), as well as those that might be related to HPV status in the oropharynx.

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

We conducted genome-wide DNA methylation profiling of primary tumor samples and corresponding adjacent mucosa from 118 HNSCC patients undergoing treatment at Montefiore Medical Center, Bronx, NY, using the Illumina HumanMethylation27 beadchip. For each matched tissue set, we measured differentially methylated CpG loci using a change in methylation level (M-value).

RESULTS

When datasets were individually analyzed by anatomic site of the primary tumor, we identified 293 differentially methylated CpG loci in oral cavity squamous cell carcinoma (SCC), 219 differentially methylated CpG loci in laryngeal SCC, and 460 differentially methylated in oropharyngeal SCC. A subset of these differentially methylated CpG loci was common across all anatomic sites of HNSCC. Stratification by HPV status revealed a significantly higher number of differentially methylated CpG loci in HPV+ patients.

CONCLUSION

Novel epigenetic biomarkers derived from clinical HNSCC specimens can be used as molecular classifiers of this disease, revealing many new avenues of investigation for this disease.

Galanin has tumor suppressor activity and is frequently inactivated by aberrant promoter methylation in head and neck cancer

PURPOSE

There is accumulating evidence that galanin receptors (GALRs) may be tumor suppressors in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC). Promoter methylation status and gene expression were assessed in a large panel of primary tumors, based on the hypothesis that CpG hypermethylation might silence the galanin gene.

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

Galanin expression was examined using reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (PCR). The methylation status of the galanin promoter was studied using bisulfate sequencing and methylation-specific PCR. UM-SCC-54 was stably transfected to express galanin.

RESULTS

Galanin expression was absent in 3/12 (25.0%) UM-SCC cell lines, whereas three nonmalignant cell lines had stable expression. Galanin methylation was found in 24/100 (24.0%) cases. HNSCC tumor specimens was significantly correlated with the GALR1 methylation status (P = 1.88E-06). The presence of galanin promoter hypermethylation was statistically correlated with a decrease in disease-free survival (log-rank test, P = 6.02E-05). A multivariate logistic regression analysis showed that methylation of galanin and methylation of the gene pair galanin and GALR1 had an odds ratio for recurrence of 8.95 [95% confidence interval (CI), 2.29-35.03] and 23.84 (95% CI, 2.74-207.17), respectively. UM-SCC-54 cells that are GALR1-proficient but have hypermethylated galanin exhibited suppressed cell proliferation following exogenous expression of galanin.

CONCLUSIONS

Association of frequent promoter hypermethylation and gene silencing with poor survival, combined with growth suppression of HNSCC cells after forced gene expression, supports the hypothesis that galanin acts as a tumor suppressor. These data suggest that galanin and GALR1 are potential therapeutic targets and prognostic factors.

Frequent promoter hypermethylation of tachykinin-1 and tachykinin receptor type 1 is a potential biomarker for head and neck cancer

AIM

The aim of this study was to define TAC1 and TACR1 methylation profiles for head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) tumors at diagnosis and follow-up and to evaluate their prognostic significance and value as a biomarker of recurrence.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

TAC1 and TACR1 expression was measured in a panel of cell lines by quantitative RT-PCR. The TAC1 and TACR1 promoter methylation status was determined by quantitative methylation-specific PCR.

RESULTS

Methylation was associated with TAC1 and TACR1 transcription inhibition. TAC1 methylation in 49/100 (49 %) of HNSCC tumor specimens significantly correlated with p16 methylation (P = 0.010), E-cadherin methylation (P = 0.041), galanin methylation (P = 0.037), and disease-free survival (P = 0.002). Stage III and IV patients manifesting TAC1 hypermethylation had significantly shorter survivals than did patients without TAC1 methylation (P = 0.022). TACR1 methylation in 34/100 (34 %) cases was significantly correlated with galanin methylation (P = 0.014) and GALR1 methylation (P = 0.004). TAC1 promoter hypermethylation was statistically correlated with reduced disease-free survival (log-rank test, P = 0.002). In multivariate logistic-regression analysis, methylation of TAC1 and of the gene pair TAC1 and TACR1 was associated with an odds ratio for recurrence of 3.35 (95 % CI, 1.37-8.19; P = 0.008) and 5.09 (95 % CI, 1.44-18.02; P = 0.011), respectively.

CONCLUSION

CpG hypermethylation is a likely mechanism of TAC1 and TACR1 gene inactivation, supporting the hypothesis that TAC1 and TACR1 play a role in the tumorigenesis of HNSCC and that this hypermethylation may serve as an important biomarker.

Involvement of plasmin-mediated extracellular activation of progalanin in angiogenesis

Progalanin is released from the small cell lung carcinoma line SBC-3A and converted to its active form by plasmin. To elucidate the role of progalanin activation in the extracellular compartment, matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) activity was studied in SBC-3A cells treated with progalanin siRNA, and angiogenesis was measured in tumor tissue originating from SBC-3A cell transplantation into mice. Progalanin siRNA caused downregulation of progalanin expression for approximately 8 days. MMP activity and angiogenesis were reduced in tumors induced by transplantation of progalanin siRNA-treated SBC-3A cells. In contrast, MMP-9 and MMP-2 activity and angiogenesis increased in tumors originating from progalanin siRNA-treated SBC-3A cells in the presence of galanin and progalanin. Furthermore, injection of tranexamic acid, a plasmin inhibitor, more markedly reduced MMP-9 and MMP-2 activity and angiogenesis in tumors originating from progalanin siRNA-treated SBC-3A cells and in tumor tissue originating from progalanin siRNA-treated SBC-3A cells in the presence of progalanin. The reduction of MMP-9 and MMP-2 activity with tranexamic acid was restored by galanin, but not by progalanin. Moreover, tranexamic acid reduced angiogenesis in control siRNA-treated SBC-3A cells. These results suggest that the activation of progalanin by plasmin in the extracellular compartment was involved in MMP-9 and MMP-2 activation and in angiogenesis in tumor tissue.

Identification of cell surface proteins as potential immunotherapy targets in 12 pediatric cancers

Technological advances now allow us to rapidly produce CARs and other antibody-derived therapeutics targeting cell surface receptors. To maximize the potential of these new technologies, relevant extracellular targets must be identified. The Pediatric Oncology Branch of the NCI curates a freely accessible database of gene expression data for both pediatric cancers and normal tissues, through which we have defined discrete sets of over-expressed transcripts in 12 pediatric cancer subtypes as compared to normal tissues. We coupled gene expression profiles to current annotation databases (i.e., Affymetrix, Gene Ontology, Entrez Gene), in order to categorize transcripts by their sub-cellular location. In this manner we generated a list of potential immune targets expressed on the cell surface, ranked by their difference from normal tissue. Global differences from normal between each of the pediatric tumor types studied varied, indicating that some malignancies expressed transcript sets that were more highly diverged from normal tissues than others. The validity of our approach is seen by our findings for pre-B cell ALL, where targets currently in clinical trials were top-ranked hits (CD19, CD22). For some cancers, reagents already in development could potentially be applied to a new disease class, as exemplified by CD30 expression on sarcomas. Moreover, several potential new targets shared among several pediatric solid tumors are herein identified, such as MCAM (MUC18), metadherin (MTDH), and glypican-2 (GPC2). These targets have been identified at the mRNA level and are yet to be validated at the protein level. The safety of targeting these antigens has yet to be demonstrated and therefore the identified transcripts should be considered preliminary candidates for new CAR and therapeutic antibody targets. Prospective candidate targets will be evaluated by proteomic analysis including Westerns and immunohistochemistry of normal and tumor tissues.

Galanin and its three receptors in human pituitary adenoma

Galanin, a 29-aminoacid peptide (30 in humans), is widely distributed in the nervous and endocrine systems and exerts its actions via three G-protein-coupled receptors, GalR1-3. The galanin system has, among others, been associated with tumorigenesis. Our objective was to assess the expression of galanin and its receptors in pituitary tumors. Transcript levels of galanin and galanin receptors 1-3 (GalR1-3) were measured using quantitative real-time PCR (q-PCR) in pituitary tumors, surgically removed from thirteen patients, and twelve post mortem pituitaries. Galanin, GalR1 and GalR2 mRNA, but not GalR3 mRNA, were found in the twelve human post-mortem pituitaries. Expression of GalR1 was relatively increased in most, whereas GalR2 was decreased in some tumors. High levels of GalR3 were only found in tumors of five patients, who all relapsed shortly after surgical intervention. The results suggest that GalR3, a receptor for the neuroendocrine peptide galanin, is a potential marker for relapsing pituitary tumors. Thus, galanin receptors may play an important role in pituitary tumors, also for surgical outcome and prognosis, and may serve as a diagnostic tool. The association of GalR3 with tumor relapse suggests that antagonists to this receptor represent a potential therapeutic approach to treatment of pituitary tumors.

Genome-wide identification of possible methylation markers chemosensitive to targeted regimens in colorectal cancers

PURPOSE

Few efficient methylation markers of chemosensitivity have been discovered. The genome-wide analysis of methylation markers is needed to identify chemosensitive candidates to targeted therapy.

METHODS

This study describes a two-step process to select chemosensitive candidates of methylation genes. A genome-wide screening of methylation genes was performed using a Beadarray and an in vitro chemosensitivity assay of 119 colorectal cancers (CRCs). Ten candidate genes identified during the initial screening were verified by biological utility assessment using cell viability assays of transfected CRC cells.

RESULTS

Five methylation genes related to sensitivity to bevacizumab regimens (RASSF1, MMP25, KCNQ1, ESR1, and GALR2) or cetuximab regimens (SCL18A2, GPX7, NID2, IGFBP3, and ALX4) were chosen during the first step. A viability assay revealed that GALR2-overexpressing HCT116 cells were significantly more chemosensitive to bevacizumab regimens than control cells (P = 0.022 and 0.019 for bevacizumab with FOLFIRI and FOLFOX, respectively), concurrently verified on a caspase-3 activity assay. GPX7- or ALX4-overexpressed RKO cells were significantly less viable to cetuximab regimens compared to control cells (GPX7: P = 0.027 each for cetuximab with FOLFIRI and FOLFOX; ALX4: P = 0.049 and 0.003 for cetuximab with FOLFIRI and FOLFOX, respectively), but caspase-3 activity was not prominent in GPX7-overexpressed RKO cells.

CONCLUSIONS

Two novel genes, GALR2 and ALX4, have been identified as chemosensitive methylation candidates to bevacizumab and cetuximab regimens, respectively. As our study did not include a clinical association study, the two candidates should be validated in large clinical cohorts, hopefully predicting responsive patients to targeted regimens.