Deferasirox: pharmacokinetics and clinical experience

Deferasirox: A comprehensive drug profile

Deferasirox is an iron-chelating drug developed by Novartis company for treatment of diseases accompanied by chronic iron overload; such as β-thalassemia or sickle cell diseases. Owing to its advantages such as high affinity, specificity and wide therapeutic window, it is considered as first line treatment. The current chapter describes the physicochemical characteristics, mode of action, pharmacokinetics, therapeutic applications and synthetic methods for deferasirox. Moreover, it includes Fourier transform infrared spectrometry (FTIR) and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR) analysis for its functional groups. In addition, the selected analytical methods are summarized to aid the analysts in their routine analysis of deferasirox.

Deferasirox Derivatives: Ligands for the Lanthanide Series

Deferasirox is an FDA-approved iron chelator used in the treatment of iron toxicity. In this work, we report the use of several deferasirox derivatives as lanthanide chelators. Solid-state structural studies of three representative trivalent lanthanide cations, La(III), Eu(III), and Lu(III), revealed the formation of 2:2 complexes in the solid state. A 1:1 stoichiometry dominates in DMSO solution, with Ka values of 472 ± 14, 477 ± 11, and 496 ± 15 M-1 being obtained in the case of these three cations, respectively. Under the conditions of competitive precipitation in the presence of triethylamine, high selectivity (up to 80%) for lutetium(III) was observed in competition with La(III), Ce(III), and Eu(III). Theoretical calculations provided support for the observed selective crystallization.

Genetic polymorphisms influencing deferasirox pharmacokinetics, efficacy, and adverse drug reactions: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Objective: Deferasirox is an iron-chelating agent prescribed to patients with iron overload. Due to the interindividual variability of deferasirox responses reported in various populations, this study aims to determine the genetic polymorphisms that influence drug responses. Methods: A systematic search was performed from inception to March 2022 on electronic databases. All studies investigating genetic associations of deferasirox in humans were included, and the outcomes of interest included pharmacokinetics, efficacy, and adverse drug reactions. Fixed- and random-effects model meta-analyses using the ratio of means (ROM) were performed. Results: Seven studies involving 367 participants were included in a meta-analysis. The results showed that subjects carrying the A allele (AG/AA) of ABCC2 rs2273697 had a 1.23-fold increase in deferasirox C_max (ROM = 1.23; 95% confidence interval [CI]:1.06-1.43; p = 0.007) and a lower Vd (ROM = 0.48; 95% CI: 0.36-0.63; p < 0.00001), compared to those with GG. A significant attenuated area under the curve of deferasirox was observed in the subjects with UGT1A3 rs3806596 AG/GG by 1.28-fold (ROM = 0.78; 95% CI: 0.60-0.99; p = 0.04). In addition, two SNPs of CYP24A1 were also associated with the decreased C_trough: rs2248359 CC (ROM = 0.50; 95% CI: 0.29-0.87; p = 0.01) and rs2585428 GG (ROM = 0.47; 95% CI: 0.35-0.63; p < 0.00001). Only rs2248359 CC was associated with decreased C_min (ROM = 0.26; 95% CI: 0.08-0.93; p = 0.04), while rs2585428 GG was associated with a shorter half-life (ROM = 0.44; 95% CI: 0.23-0.83; p = 0.01). Conclusion: This research summarizes the current evidence supporting the influence of variations in genes involved with drug transporters, drug-metabolizing enzymes, and vitamin D metabolism on deferasirox responses.

Atrial Fibrillation in β-Thalassemia: Overview of Mechanism, Significance and Clinical Management

Thalassemia is an inherited blood disorder with worldwide distribution. Transfusion and chelation therapy have radically improved the prognosis of β-thalassemic patients in the developed world, but this has led to the development of new chronic cardiac complications like atrial fibrillation (AF). Prevalence of AF in patients with β-thalassemia is higher than in the general population, ranging from 2 to 33%. Studies are lacking, and the little evidence available comes from a small number of observational studies. The pathophysiology is not well understood but, while iron overload seems to be the principal mechanism, AF could develop even in the absence of iron deposition. Furthermore, the clinical presentation is mainly paroxysmal, and patients are highly symptomatic. The underlying disease, the pathophysiology, and the clinical presentation require a different management of AF in β-thalassemia than in the general population. Rhythm control should be preferred over rate control, and the most important antiarrhythmic therapy is represented by chelation drugs. Thromboembolic risk is high, but the available risk scores are not validated in β-thalassemia, and the choice of anticoagulation therapy should be considered early. The main purpose of this review is to summarize the actual knowledge about AF in β-thalassemia, with a specific focus on the clinical management of these complex patients.

Genetic Modifiers at the Crossroads of Personalised Medicine for Haemoglobinopathies

Haemoglobinopathies are common monogenic disorders with diverse clinical manifestations, partly attributed to the influence of modifier genes. Recent years have seen enormous growth in the amount of genetic data, instigating the need for ranking methods to identify candidate genes with strong modifying effects. Here, we present the first evidence-based gene ranking metric (IthaScore) for haemoglobinopathy-specific phenotypes by utilising curated data in the IthaGenes database. IthaScore successfully reflects current knowledge for well-established disease modifiers, while it can be dynamically updated with emerging evidence. Protein–protein interaction (PPI) network analysis and functional enrichment analysis were employed to identify new potential disease modifiers and to evaluate the biological profiles of selected phenotypes. The most relevant gene ontology (GO) and pathway gene annotations for (a) haemoglobin (Hb) F levels/Hb F response to hydroxyurea included urea cycle, arginine metabolism and vascular endothelial growth factor receptor (VEGFR) signalling, (b) response to iron chelators included xenobiotic metabolism and glucuronidation, and (c) stroke included cytokine signalling and inflammatory reactions. Our findings demonstrate the capacity of IthaGenes, together with dynamic gene ranking, to expand knowledge on the genetic and molecular basis of phenotypic variation in haemoglobinopathies and to identify additional candidate genes to potentially inform and improve diagnosis, prognosis and therapeutic management.

Iron Toxicity and Hemopoietic Cell Transplantation: Time to Change the Paradigm

The issue of iron overload in hemopoietic cell transplantation has been first discussed in the field of transplantation for thalassemia. Thalassemia major is characterized by ineffective erythropoiesis and hemolysis leading to severe anemia. Patients require regular blood transfusion therefore they develop iron overload causing organ damage and hematopoietic cell transplantation (HCT) is a consolidated reliably curative option.

In this category of patients an important issue for transplant outcome is the iron burden before transplant and in the long-life post-transplant. Nevertheless today the concept of the impact of iron overload / toxicity on the outcome of HCT has been extended to other diseases characterized by periods of variable duration of transfusion dependence.

Recent preclinical data has shown how increased production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) resulting under iron overload condition, could impair the stem cells clonality capacity, proliferation and maturation. Also, microenvironment cells could be affected through this mechanism. For this reason, iron overload is becoming an important issue also in the engraftment period post-transplant.

The aim of this review is to update consolidated knowledge about the role of iron overload/iron toxicity in the HCT setting in non-malignant and in malignant diseases introducing the concept of exposition of free toxic iron forms and related cellular damage in the different stage of transplant.

Therapeutic Macromolecular Iron Chelators

Iron is a key element for every single living process. On a fundamental level, targeting iron is a valuable approach for the treatment of disorders caused by iron overload. Utilizing iron chelators as therapeutic agents has received expanding consideration in chelation therapy. Approved low molecular weight (MW) iron chelators to treat iron overload may experience short half-lives and toxicities prompting moderately high adverse effects. In recent years, polymeric/macromolecular iron chelators have received attention as therapeutic agents. Polymeric iron chelators show unique pharmaceutical properties that are different to their conventional small molecule counterparts. These polymeric iron chelators possess longer plasma half-lives and reduced toxicities, thus exhibiting a significant supplement to currently using low MW iron chelator therapy. In this review, we have briefly discussed polymeric iron chelators and factors to be considered when designing clinically valuable iron chelators. We have also discussed applications of polymeric iron chelators in the diseases caused by iron overload associated with transfusional hemosiderosis, neurodegenerative disorders, malaria and cancer. With this, research findings for new polymeric iron chelators are also covered.

Jadenu® Substituting Exjade® in Iron Overloaded β-Thalassemia Major (BTM) Patients: A Preliminary Report of the Effects on the Tolerability, Serum Ferritin Level, Liver Iron Concentration and Biochemical Profiles

Introduction

Due to the chronic nature of chelation therapy and the adverse consequences of iron overload, patient adherence to therapy is an important issue. Jadenu ^® is a new oral formulation of deferasirox (Exjade ^®) tablets for oral suspension. While Exjade^® is a dispersible tablet that must be mixed in liquid and taken on an empty stomach, Jadenu ^® can be taken in a single step, with or without a light meal, simplifying administration for the treatment of patients with chronic iron overload. This may significantly improve the compliance to treatment of patients with β-thalassemia major (BMT). The aim of this study was to evaluate the drug tolerability and the effects of chelation therapy on serum ferritin concentration, liver iron concentration (LIC) and biochemical profiles in patients with BMT and iron overload.

Patients and Methods

Twelve selected adult patients BMT (mean age: 29 years; range:15–34 years) were enrolled in the study. All patients were on monthly regular red cell transfusion therapy to keep their pre-transfusional hemoglobin (Hb) level not less than 9 g/dL. They were on Exjade^® therapy (30 mg/kg per day) for two years or more before starting Jadenu® therapy (14–28 mg/kg/day). The reason for shifting from Deferasirox^® to Jadenu^® therapy was lack of tolerability, as described by patients, such as nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, stomach pain. Most of them also reported that Deferasirox^® was not palatable. Lab investigations included monthly urine analysis and measurement of their serum concentrations of creatinine, fasting blood glucose (FBG), serum ferritin, alkaline phosphatase (ALP), alanine transferase (ALT), aspartate transferase (AST) and albumin concentrations. LIC was measured using FerriScan ^®. Thyroid function, vitamin D and serum parathormone, before and one year after starting Jadenu ^® therapy, were also assessed.

Results

Apart from some minor gastrointestinal complaints reported in 3 BMT patients that did not require discontinuation of therapy, other side effects were not registered during the treatment. Subjectively, patients reported an improvement in the palatability of Jadenu^® compared to Exjade^® therapy in 8 out of 12 BMT patients. A non-significant decrease in LIC measured by FerriScan^® and serum ferritin levels was observed after one year of treatment with Jadenu^®. A significant positive correlation was found between serum ferritin level and LIC measured by the FerriScan^® method. LIC and serum ferritin level correlated significantly with ALT level (r = 0.31 and 0.45 respectively, p < 0.05). No significant correlation was detected between LIC and other biochemical or hormonal parameters.

Conclusions

Our study shows that short-term treatment with Jadenu ^® is safe but is associated with a non-significant decrease in LIC and serum ferritin levels. Therefore, there is an urgent need for adequately-powered and high-quality trials to assess the clinical efficacy and the longterm outcomes of new deferasirox formulation.

Opportunities for model-based precision dosing in the treatment of sickle cell anemia

Hydroxyurea is the primary pharmacotherapy to prevent complications of sickle cell anemia (SCA). Accumulated clinical experience across multiple age ranges has suggested that the use of an individualized maximum tolerated dose (MTD) will achieve optimal benefit of hydroxyurea treatment. However, the current empirical and trial-and-error approach for dose escalation often results in a lengthy titration process and is not strictly implemented in many clinics. Opportunities exist for pharmacokinetics model-based precision dosing of hydroxyurea to quickly achieve individual MTD. This review intends to introduce the use of a quantitative modeling approach including a Bayesian adaptive control strategy for the precision dosing of hydroxyurea. The rationale and practical considerations for the implementation of this approach are discussed. Future research directions with a focus on integrating specific safety and other clinical outcome endpoints into dose selection decision making are also discussed.

Safety and tolerability of deferasirox in pediatric hematopoietic stem cell transplant recipients: one facility's five years' experience of chelation treatment

42 pediatric patients with iron overload, who underwent liver biopsy and DFX treatment after hematopoietic stem cell transplantation were included in the study group. The patients were divided into two groups diversified according to deferasirox trough plasma concentrations (DFX C_trough) with cut-off equal to10 mcg/mL. The average dose of DFX was 25.9 mg/kg in the DFX C_trough < 10 mcg/mL group versus 19.2 mg/kg in the DFX C_trough > 10 mcg/mL group (p=0,0003). The mean duration of DFX treatment was 135.7 days in the DFX C_trough < 10 mcg/mL group versus 41.8 days in the DFX C_trough > 10 mcg/mL group (p<0.0001). The mean tissue iron concentration in the DFX C_trough < 10 mcg/mL group was 261.9 μmol/g versus 133.4 μmol/g in the DFX C_trough > 10 mcg/mL group (p < 0.0001). 21 patients (100%) in the DFX C_trough > 10 mcg/mL group had ductopenia which was complete in 47.6% of them and severe in 52.4%. All patients with particularly high C_trough (> 25 mcg/mL) were found to have total ductopenia. 90.5% of all deferasirox-related adverse events and 100% of major adverse events occurred in the DFX C_trough > 10 mcg/mL group. In the DFX C_trough < 10 mcg/mL group only one patient interrupted chelation therapy versus 16 (84.2%) patients in the DFX C_trough > 10 mcg/mL group. We would recommend a close monitoring in pediatric hematopoietic transplant recipients subjected to deferasirox-based therapy because we have observed a high incidence of adverse events and discontinuation of chelation treatment.

Transfusional iron overload and iron chelation therapy in thalassemia major and sickle cell disease

Iron overload is an inevitable consequence of blood transfusions and is often accompanied by increased iron absorption from the gut. Chelation therapy is necessary to prevent the consequences of hemosiderosis. Three chelators, deferoxamine, deferiprone, and deferasirox, are presently available and a fourth is undergoing clinical trials. The efficacy of all 3 available chelators has been demonstrated. Also, many studies have shown the efficacy of the combination of deferoxamine plus deferiprone as an intensive treatment of severe iron overload. Alternating chelators can reduce adverse effects and improve compliance. Adherence to therapy is crucial for good results.

Polymeric nanocarriers for the treatment of systemic iron overload

Desferrioxamine (DFO), deferiprone (L1) and desferasirox (ICL-670) are clinically approved iron chelators used to treat secondary iron overload. Although iron chelators have been utilized since the 1960s and there has been much improvement in available therapy, there is still the need for new drug candidates due to limited long-term efficacy and drug toxicity. Moreover, all currently approved iron chelators are of low molecular weight (MW) (<600 Da) and the objectives reported for the “ideal” chelator of low MW, including possessing the ability to promote iron excretion without causing toxic side effects, has proven difficult to realize in practice. With prolonged iron chelator use, patients may develop toxicities or become insensitive. In contrast, the limited research that has been geared towards developing higher MW, polymeric, long circulating iron chelators has shown promise. The inherent potential of polymeric iron chelators toward longer plasma half-lives and reduction in toxicity provides optimism and may be a significant addition to the currently available low MW iron chelators. This article reviews knowledge pertaining to this theme, highlights some unique advantages that these nanomedicines have in treating systemic iron overload as well as their potential utility in the treatment of other disease states.

Polymeric nanocarriers for the treatment of systemic iron overload

Desferrioxamine (DFO), deferiprone (L1) and desferasirox (ICL-670) are clinically approved iron chelators used to treat secondary iron overload. Although iron chelators have been utilized since the 1960s and there has been much improvement in available therapy, there is still the need for new drug candidates due to limited long-term efficacy and drug toxicity. Moreover, all currently approved iron chelators are of low molecular weight (MW) (<600 Da) and the objectives reported for the "ideal" chelator of low MW, including possessing the ability to promote iron excretion without causing toxic side effects, has proven difficult to realize in practice. With prolonged iron chelator use, patients may develop toxicities or become insensitive. In contrast, the limited research that has been geared towards developing higher MW, polymeric, long circulating iron chelators has shown promise. The inherent potential of polymeric iron chelators toward longer plasma half-lives and reduction in toxicity provides optimism and may be a significant addition to the currently available low MW iron chelators. This article reviews knowledge pertaining to this theme, highlights some unique advantages that these nanomedicines have in treating systemic iron overload as well as their potential utility in the treatment of other disease states.

Clinically approved iron chelators influence zebrafish mortality, hatching morphology and cardiac function

Iron chelation therapy using iron (III) specific chelators such as desferrioxamine (DFO, Desferal), deferasirox (Exjade or ICL-670), and deferiprone (Ferriprox or L1) are the current standard of care for the treatment of iron overload. Although each chelator is capable of promoting some degree of iron excretion, these chelators are also associated with a wide range of well documented toxicities. However, there is currently very limited data available on their effects in developing embryos. In this study, we took advantage of the rapid development and transparency of the zebrafish embryo, Danio rerio to assess and compare the toxicity of iron chelators. All three iron chelators described above were delivered to zebrafish embryos by direct soaking and their effects on mortality, hatching and developmental morphology were monitored for 96 hpf. To determine whether toxicity was specific to embryos, we examined the effects of chelator exposure via intra peritoneal injection on the cardiac function and gene expression in adult zebrafish. Chelators varied significantly in their effects on embryo mortality, hatching and morphology. While none of the embryos or adults exposed to DFO were negatively affected, ICL -treated embryos and adults differed significantly from controls, and L1 exerted toxic effects in embryos alone. ICL-670 significantly increased the mortality of embryos treated with doses of 0.25 mM or higher and also affected embryo morphology, causing curvature of larvae treated with concentrations above 0.5 mM. ICL-670 exposure (10 µL of 0.1 mM injection) also significantly increased the heart rate and cardiac output of adult zebrafish. While L1 exposure did not cause toxicity in adults, it did cause morphological defects in embryos at 0.5 mM. This study provides first evidence on iron chelator toxicity in early development and will help to guide our approach on better understanding the mechanism of iron chelator toxicity.

Determination of deferasirox plasma concentrations: do gender, physical and genetic differences affect chelation efficacy?

OBJECTIVES

Bioavailability of deferasirox (DFX) is significantly affected by the timing of administration relative to times and to composition of meals. Its elimination half-life is also highly variable - in some patients as a result of gene polymorphisms. Understanding whether deferasirox plasma levels are related to specific characteristics of patients could help physicians to devise a drug regimen tailored the individual patient.

METHODS

We analyzed deferasirox plasma concentrations (CDFX ) in 80 patients with transfusion-dependent anemias, such as thalassemia, by a high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) assay. We used a multivariate linear regression model to find significant associations between CDFX and clinical/demographical characteristics of patients. All patients were genotyped for UGT1A1.

RESULTS

Fifty-six patients were female, 24 were male, the great majority (88%) affected by β-thalassemia, and 15 were children and adolescents. No statistical correlation was detectable between CDFX and DFX dose (P = 0.6). Age, time from last drug intake to blood sampling, and ferritin levels in the 6 months before study initiation were significantly and inversely associated with CDFX in univariate analysis. In the multivariate analysis, the only two factors independently and inversely associated with CDFX levels were time from last drug intake to blood sampling and ferritin levels (P = 0.006). A significant inverse correlation (P = 0.03) was observed between CDFX and UGT1A1*28 gene polymorphism, but only in patients with levels of lean body mass (LBM) below the median (P for interaction = 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

The results could indicate that a higher plasma DFX concentration could be associated with greater chelation efficacy. As a correlation between dose and CDFX was not demonstrated, it seems useful to monitor the concentrations to optimize and determine the most appropriate dose for each patient. Interesting results emerged from the analysis of genetic and physical characteristics of patients: LBM was a borderline significant effect modifier of the relationship between UGT1A1 polymorphisms and CDFX . Individual patient-tailored dosing of DFX should help to improve iron chelation efficacy and to reduce dose-dependent drug toxicity.

Deferasirox for managing transfusional iron overload in people with sickle cell disease

BACKGROUND

Sickle cell disease (SCD) is a group of genetic haemoglobin disorders, that occurs in about 2.2 per 1000 births worldwide. Increasingly, some people with SCD develop secondary iron overload due to occasional red blood cell transfusions or are on long-term transfusion programmes for e.g. secondary stroke prevention. Iron chelation therapy can prevent long-term complications.Deferoxamine and deferiprone have been found to be efficacious. However, questions exist about the effectiveness and safety of the newer oral chelator deferasirox.

OBJECTIVES

To assess the effectiveness and safety of oral deferasirox in people with SCD and secondary iron overload.

SEARCH METHODS

We searched the Cystic Fibrosis &amp; Genetic Disorders Group's Haemoglobinopathies Trials Register: date of most recent search:13 March 2014.We searched MEDLINE, Embase, Biosis Previews, Web of Science, Derwent Drug File, XTOXLINE, EBMR and The Cochrane Library, respectively; date of most recent searches: 02 August 2013.We searched four trial registries: www.controlled-trials.com; www.clinicaltrials.gov; www.who.int./ictrp/en/; www.drks.de; date of most recent searches: 03 June 2013.

SELECTION CRITERIA

Randomised controlled trials comparing deferasirox with no therapy or placebo or with another iron chelating treatment schedule.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Two authors independently assessed risk of bias and extracted data. We contacted the corresponding study authors for additional information.

MAIN RESULTS

Two studies (with 203 and 212 people) comparing the efficacy and safety of deferasirox and deferoxamine after 12 months and 24 weeks, respectively, were included. The overall quality, according to GRADE, for the main outcomes was moderate to low. Only limited data were available on mortality and end-organ damage, although one study did assess mortality, relative risk 1.26 (95% confidence interval 0.05 to 30.41), the 24-week follow up was too short to allow us to draw firm conclusions. One study reported a relative risk of 1.26 for the incidence of type 2 diabetes mellitus (95% confidence interval 0.05 to 30.41). Serum ferritin reduction was significantly greater with deferoxamine, mean difference of change of 440.69 µg/l (95% confidence interval 11.73 to 869.64). Liver iron concentration (reported in one study) measured by superconduction quantum interference device showed no significant difference for the overall group of patients adjusted for transfusion category, mean difference -0.20 mg Fe/g dry weight (95% confidence interval -3.15 to 2.75).The occurrence of serious adverse events did not differ between drugs. Nausea, diarrhoea and rash occurred significantly more often in people treated with deferasirox, while adverse events of any kind were more often reported for patients treated with deferoxamine (one study). The mean increase of creatinine was also significantly higher with deferasirox, mean difference 3.24 (95% confidence interval 0.45 to 6.03). Long-term adverse events could not be measured in the included studies (follow up 52 weeks and 24 weeks). Patient satisfaction and the likelihood of continuing treatment, were significantly better with deferasirox.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

Deferasirox appears to be of similar efficacy to deferoxamine depending on depending on the appropriate ratio of doses of deferoxamine and deferasirox being compared. However, only limited evidence is available assessing the efficacy regarding patient-important outcomes. The short-term safety of deferasirox seems to be acceptable, however, follow up in the available studies was too short to assess long-term side effects. Long-term safety and efficacy data are available from a non-controlled extension phase not included in our review; however, no valid comparative conclusions can be drawn and future studies should assess comparatively long-term outcomes both for safety and efficacy.

Transfusion-dependent low-risk myelodysplastic patients receiving deferasirox: Long-term follow-up

Myelodysplastic syndromes (MDSs) are characterized by ineffective hematopoiesis that results in peripheral cytopenias. Anemia is the most common symptom of MDS and the majority of patients become transfusion-dependent with the risk of iron overload, which may lead to cardiac, hepatic and endocrine complications. Deferasirox is an orally available iron chelator administered once-daily in transfusion-dependent patients with various chronic anemias. Its efficacy has been established in controlled clinical trials. In the present study, we describe our experience with 55 consecutive MDS patients [International Prognostic Scoring System risk score of low (n=32) or intermediate-1 (n=23)] treated with deferasirox in a routine clinical setting following Consensus Guidelines on Iron Chelation Therapy. According to WHO classifications, patients had refractory anemia (n=30), refractory anemia with ringed sideroblasts (n=16), refractory cytopenia with multilineage dysplasia (n=8) or refractory cytopenia with multilineage dysplasia and ringed sideroblasts (n=1). The median monthly transfusion requirement at baseline was 3 units. Patients received a starting dosage of 10 mg/kg/day, subsequently titrated according to serum ferritin (SF) levels which were measured monthly. Safety assessment included monitoring of liver and renal parameters and recording adverse events (AE) during treatment. At the baseline, the mean ± SD SF level was 2,362±172 ng/ml and after 24 months, the mean ± SD decrease in SF was 1,679±209 ng/ml. Sixteen patients had sustained hematological improvement meeting International Working Group 2006 criteria. One patient became transfusion-independent. No severe AE were reported. In conclusion, deferasirox therapy was effective and safe in reducing transfusional iron overload and it reduces transfusion requirement in a subset of patients.

Deferasirox for the treatment of iron overload in non-transfusion-dependent thalassemia

Non-transfusion-dependent thalassemia (NTDT) defines a group of patients who do not require regular transfusions for survival, but are at significant risk of iron accumulation from underlying disease-related mechanisms distinct from transfusional iron overload. Management of iron overload in NTDT has received little attention compared with that of β-thalassemia major, despite evidence of significant iron-induced complications with advancing age. The efficacy and safety of the iron chelator deferasirox in NTDT has been evaluated in two pilot studies and the first prospective, randomized, placebo-controlled study (THALASSA) of any chelator in NTDT. Treatment with deferasirox for up to 2 years yielded a sustained reduction in iron burden, with a clinically manageable safety profile. Following these trial data, deferasirox is the first iron chelator approved for use in NTDT patients, and with NTDT guidelines now available, physicians are better equipped to achieve effective monitoring and management of iron burden in NTDT.

Cardiovascular function and treatment in β-thalassemia major: a consensus statement from the American Heart Association

This aim of this statement is to report an expert consensus on the diagnosis and treatment of cardiac dysfunction in β-thalassemia major (TM). This consensus statement does not cover other hemoglobinopathies, including thalassemia intermedia and sickle cell anemia, in which a different spectrum of cardiovascular complications is typical. There are considerable uncertainties in this field, with a few randomized controlled trials relating to treatment of chronic myocardial siderosis but none relating to treatment of acute heart failure. The principles of diagnosis and treatment of cardiac iron loading in TM are directly relevant to other iron-overload conditions, including in particular Diamond-Blackfan anemia, sideroblastic anemia, and hereditary hemochromatosis. Heart failure is the most common cause of death in TM and primarily results from cardiac iron accumulation. The diagnosis of ventricular dysfunction in TM patients differs from that in nonanemic patients because of the cardiovascular adaptation to chronic anemia in non-cardiac-loaded TM patients, which includes resting tachycardia, low blood pressure, enlarged end-diastolic volume, high ejection fraction, and high cardiac output. Chronic anemia also leads to background symptomatology such as dyspnea, which can mask the clinical diagnosis of cardiac dysfunction. Central to early identification of cardiac iron overload in TM is the estimation of cardiac iron by cardiac T2* magnetic resonance. Cardiac T2* <10 ms is the most important predictor of development of heart failure. Serum ferritin and liver iron concentration are not adequate surrogates for cardiac iron measurement. Assessment of cardiac function by noninvasive techniques can also be valuable clinically, but serial measurements to establish trends are usually required because interpretation of single absolute values is complicated by the abnormal cardiovascular hemodynamics in TM and measurement imprecision. Acute decompensated heart failure is a medical emergency and requires urgent consultation with a center with expertise in its management. The first principle of management of acute heart failure is control of cardiac toxicity related to free iron by urgent commencement of a continuous, uninterrupted infusion of high-dose intravenous deferoxamine, augmented by oral deferiprone. Considerable care is required to not exacerbate cardiovascular problems from overuse of diuretics or inotropes because of the unusual loading conditions in TM. The current knowledge on the efficacy of removal of cardiac iron by the 3 commercially available iron chelators is summarized for cardiac iron overload without overt cardiac dysfunction. Evidence from well-conducted randomized controlled trials shows superior efficacy of deferiprone versus deferoxamine, the superiority of combined deferiprone with deferoxamine versus deferoxamine alone, and the equivalence of deferasirox versus deferoxamine.

Deferasirox shows in vitro and in vivo antileukemic effects on murine leukemic cell lines regardless of iron status

Numerous studies have shown the antiproliferative effect of iron chelating agents (ICAs), which have been used traditionally in patients with secondary iron overload (SIO). Because the in vivo model for these studies has been animals with normal iron status, the antileukemic effect of ICAs in the SIO condition has not been determined clearly. We investigated the in vitro and in vivo effects of ICAs in murine leukemic cell lines regarding the iron status. The viability of both EL4 cells and L1210 cells incubated with either deferoxamine (DFO) or deferasirox (DFX) decreased in a concentration-dependent manner. This effect was most prominent in L1210 cells treated with DFX. The viability of L1210 cells incubated with both ICAs did not change regardless of the presence of ferric chloride. The percentage of apoptosis in L1210 cells treated with DFO or DFX increased in a concentration-dependent manner; however, the expression of Fas showed no significant change. The non-SIO mice and SIO mice bearing L1210 cells showed longer survival than other groups when treated with DFX, whereas the SIO mice treated with DFO showed shorter survival than the control group. The tumor was significantly smaller in the SIO mice treated with DFX or DFO compared with the control group. The iron content of the liver or the tumor in SIO mice decreased after ICA treatment. This study indicates an antileukemic effect of DFX regardless of iron status and suggests that the use of DFX has a survival benefit for SIO leukemia murine model in terms of iron chelation and antileukemic therapy.