Incorporating sprint training with endurance training improves anaerobic capacity and 2,000-m Erg performance in trained oarsmen

Meta-analyses of the effects of high-intensity interval training in elite athletes-part I: mean effects on various performance measures

Introduction

Meta-analysts have found that high-intensity interval training (HIIT) improves physical performance, but limited evidence exists regarding its effects on highly trained athletes, measures beyond maximum oxygen uptake (V ˙ O2max), and the moderating effects of different types of HIIT. In this study, we present meta-analyses of the effects of HIIT focusing on these deficits.

Methods

The effects of 6 types of HIIT and other moderators were derived from 34 studies involving highly trained endurance and elite athletes in percent units via log-transformation from separate meta-regression mixed models for sprint, time-trial, aerobic/anaerobic threshold, peak speed/power, repeated-sprint ability,V ˙ O2max, and exercise economy. The level of evidence for effect magnitudes was evaluated based on the effect uncertainty and the smallest important change of 1%.

Results

Compared with control training, HIIT showed good to excellent evidence for the substantial enhancement of most measures for some athlete subgroups in practically important study settings defined by effect moderators (maximum of 12.6%, for endurance female athletes after 6 weeks of aerobic traditional long intervals). The assessment of the moderators indicated good evidence of greater effects as follows: with more aerobic types of HIIT forV ˙ O2max (+2.6%); with HIIT added to conventional training for most measures (+1.1-2.3%); during the competition phase forV ˙ O2max (+4.3%); and with tests of longer duration for sprint (+5.5%) and time trial (+4.9%). The effects of sex and type of athlete were unclear moderators. The heterogeneity of HIIT effects within a given type of setting varied from small to moderate (standard deviations of 1.1%-2.3%) and reduced the evidence of benefit in some settings.

Conclusion

Although athletes in some settings can be confident of the beneficial effects of HIIT on some measures related to competition performance, further research is needed. There is uncertainty regarding the mean effects on exercise economy and the modifying effects of sex, duration of intervention, phase of training, and type of HIIT for most measures.

Systematic Review Registration

https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/PROSPERO/display_record.php?RecordID=236384.

Five-Week, Low-Intensity Blood Flow Restriction Rowing Improves V̇ o2 max in Elite Rowers

ABSTRACT

Held, S, Rappelt, L, Rein, R, Deutsch, J-P, Wiedenmann, T, and Donath, L. Five-week, low-intensity, blood flow restriction rowing improves V̇ o2 max in elite rowers. J Strength Cond Res 38(6): e299-e303, 2024-This controlled intervention study examined the effects of low-intensity rowing with blood flow restriction (BFR) on maximal oxygen uptake (V̇ o2 max), peak power output during ramp testing (PPO), and 2000-m time trial performance (P2k). Eleven, highly elite, male rowers (22.1 ± 1.6 years; 92.6 ± 3.8 kg; 1.93 ± 0.04 m; 7.9. ± 2.2 years rowing experience; 20.4 ± 2.0 h·w -1 training volume; 11.9 ± 1.1 session per week) trained 5 weeks without BFR (Base) followed by a 5-week BFR intervention period. BFR of the lower limb was applied through customized elastic wraps. BFR took place 3 times a week (accumulated net pBFR: 60 min·wk -1 ; occlusion per session: 2 times 10 min·session -1 ) and was used exclusively at low intensities (<2 mmol·L -1 ). V̇ o2 max, PPO, and P2k were examined before, between, and after both intervention periods. Bayesian's credible intervals revealed relevantly increased V̇ o2 max +0.30 L·min -1 (95% credible interval: +0.00 to +0.61 L·min -1 ) adaptations through BFR. By contrast, PPO +14 W (-6 to +34 W) and P2k -5 W (-14 to +3 W) were not noticeably affected by the BFR intervention. This study revealed that 15 sessions of BFR application with a cumulative total BFR load of 5 h over a 5-week macrocycle increased V̇ o2 max remarkably. Thus, pBFR might serve as a promising tool to improve aerobic capacity in highly trained elite rowers.

Acute and Chronic Performance Enhancement in Rowing: A Network Meta-analytical Approach on the Effects of Nutrition and Training

INTRODUCTION

This systematic review and network meta-analysis assessed via direct and indirect comparison the occurrence and magnitude of effects following different nutritional supplementation strategies and exercise interventions on acute and chronic rowing performance and its surrogates.

METHODS

PubMed, Web of Science, PsycNET and SPORTDiscus searches were conducted until March 2022 to identify studies  that met the following inclusion criteria: (a) controlled trials, (b) rowing performance and its surrogate parameters as outcomes, and (c) peer-reviewed and published in English. Frequentist network meta-analytical approaches were calculated based on standardized mean differences (SMD) using random effects models.

RESULTS

71 studies with 1229 healthy rowers (aged 21.5 ± 3.0 years) were included and two main networks (acute and chronic) with each two subnetworks for nutrition and exercise have been created. Both networks revealed low heterogeneity and non-significant inconsistency (I² ≤ 35.0% and Q statistics: p ≥ 0.12). Based on P-score rankings, while caffeine (P-score 84%; SMD 0.43) revealed relevantly favorable effects in terms of acute rowing performance enhancement, whilst prior weight reduction (P-score 10%; SMD - 0.48) and extensive preload (P-score 18%; SMD - 0.34) impaired acute rowing performance. Chronic blood flow restriction training (P-score 96%; SMD 1.26) and the combination of β-hydroxy-β-methylbutyrate and creatine (P-score 91%; SMD 1.04) induced remarkably large positive effects, while chronic spirulina (P-score 7%; SMD - 1.05) and black currant (P-score 9%; SMD - 0.88) supplementation revealed impairment effects.

CONCLUSION

Homogeneous and consistent findings from numerous studies indicate that the choice of nutritional supplementation strategy and exercise training regimen are vital for acute and chronic performance enhancement in rowing.

Adaptive responses of cardiorespiratory system and hormonal parameters to individualized high-intensity interval training using anaerobic power reserve in well-trained rowers

The current study investigated the efficacy of individualizing exercise intensity according to anaerobic power reserve (APR) on hormonal, physiological, and performance adaptations in athletes with different profiles. Sixteen highly-trained male rowers (age = 22 ± 3 years, height = 183 ± 6 cm, weight = 83 ± 7 kg, body fat = 11 ± 2%, experience = 12 ± 5 years) were randomized to a high-intensity interval training consisting of 2 × (6, 6, 8, 8, 10, 10 repetitions from 1st to 6th week, respectively) × 60 s intervals using a rowing ergometer at ∆%30 APR (APR_∆%30) or the same sets and repetitions at 130% maximal aerobic power (MAP_130%). In both groups, relief intervals were set at 1:1 with 3 min of rest between sets. On four occasions separated by 24 h recovery, participants attended the laboratory to assess 2000-m rowing ergometer performance, maximal oxygen uptake (V̇O₂max) and related physiological adaptations, and hormonal parameters. Significant increases were observed in 2000-m performance, V̇O₂max, ventilation at V̇O₂max, first and second ventilatory threshold, MAP and maximal sprinting power (MSP), total testosterone, and testosterone to cortisol ratio in response to 6 weeks of APR_∆%30 and MAP_130% protocols. The coefficient of variation (inter-subject variability) in the adaptive response of cardiorespiratory parameters to HIIT performed using the APR_∆%30 protocol was lower than those of the MAP_130% group. However, this is not the case for hormonal changes. Prescribing HIIT based on an athlete's APR may help to create a more consistent level of the mechanical and physiological stimulus relative to the athlete's capacity, potentially leading to more similar adaptations across athletes with varying profiles. Mechanisms influencing total testosterone are multifactorial and are not affected by this approach.

Rowing in Los Angeles: Performance Considerations for the Change to 1500 m at the 2028 Olympic Games

BACKGROUND

World Rowing's decision to support the proposed change from a 2000-m to a 1500-m regatta course at the 2028 Olympic Games in Los Angeles is anticipated to have important implications for athlete preparation and race execution during the 2024-2028 quadrennium.

PURPOSE

This commentary aims to provide insight into the expected implications of the reduction in course length heading into the 2028 Games, focusing on the training and monitoring of high-performance rowers, as well as tactical, technical, and pacing considerations for performance. The reduction in event duration (estimated to be ∼90-120 s across all event classes) will lead to an expected ∼5% to 15% increase in relative contribution of anaerobic metabolism. Consequently, adjustment in training periodization priorities toward higher-intensity interventions may be required, especially in the period immediately prior to the games. The critical-power and anaerobic-power-reserve concepts may become more useful tools for structuring exercise programs, evaluating training outcomes, and determining event suitability through individual physiological profiling. Additionally, the adoption of a more constant (flat) pacing strategy, rather than the commonly used reverse J-shaped approach, might be considered for racing over this new distance. Finally, technical aspects, such as stroke rate and gearing, may require adjustment for optimal performance; however, research is clearly required to explore such effects.

CONCLUSIONS

Our intention is to stimulate discussion and debate, with the provision of practical recommendations that aim to optimize rowers' preparation for and performance at the 2028 Olympic Games.

High-Intensity Interval Training and Sprint-Interval Training in National-Level Rowers

Purpose: The effects of two different high-intensity training methods on 2,000 m rowing ergometer performance were examined in a feasibility study of 24 national-level rowers aged 18–27 years (17 males, 2,000 m ergometer time trial 6:21.7 ± 0:14.6 (min:s) and seven females, 2,000 m ergometer 7:20.3 ± 0:12.1. Habitual training for all participants was ~12–16 h per week).

Methods: 16 high-intensity ergometer sessions were completed across two 3-week periods. Participants were allocated into two groups according to baseline 2,000 m time. High-intensity interval session-sprint-interval session (HIIT-SIT) completed eight HIIT (8 × 2.5 min intervals; 95% of 2,000 m wattage) followed by eight SIT (three sets of 7 × 30 s intervals; maximum effort). SIT-HIIT completed eight SIT sessions followed by eight HIIT sessions. Both a 2,000-m time trial and a progressive incremental test finishing with 4 min “all-out” performance were completed before and after each 3-week phase.

Results: Both groups showed similar improvements in 2,000 m time and 4 min “all-out” distance after the first 3 weeks (2,000 m time: HIIT-SIT: −2.0 ± 0.6%, mean ± 90% CL, p = 0.01; SIT-HIIT: −1.5 ± 0.3%, p = 0.01) with no significant difference between groups. HIIT-SIT demonstrated the greatest improvements in submaximal heart rate (HR) during the progressive incremental test with eight sessions of HIIT showing a greater reduction in submaximal HR than eight sessions of SIT. The net improvement of 16 high-intensity sessions on 2,000 m time was −2.5% for HIIT-SIT (−10.6 ± 3.9 s, p = 0.01) and − 2.2% for SIT-HIIT (−9.0 ± 5.7 s, p = 0.01) and for 4 min “all-out” performance was 3.1% for HIIT-SIT (36 ± 25 m, p = 0.01) and 2.8% for SIT-HIIT (33 ± 27 m, p = 0.01).

Conclusion: Eight sessions of high-intensity training can improve 2,000 m ergometer rowing performance in national-level rowers, with a further eight sessions producing minimal additional improvement. The method of high-intensity training appears less important than the dose.

The Impulse of Force as an Effective Indicator of Exercise Capacity in Competitive Rowers and Canoeists

The aim of the research was to present the importance of measuring the impulse of force in assessing exercise capacity in professional rowers and canoeists rather than conducting traditional physiological and biochemical analyses. A group of 20 athletes (12 rowers and 8 canoeists) underwent progressive intensity exercise tests in two testing sessions (before and after a training period). During the tests, maximal aerobic capacity, impulse of strength, metabolic indices, and markers of skeletal muscle damage were assessed. Total testosterone, free testosterone, cortisol, interleukin 1,6, and creatine kinase were evaluated in venous blood. The impulse of force at the ventilatory threshold and at the maximum load was correlated with free testosterone and a total testosterone/cortisol ratio during exercise (p ≤ 0.05) and was negatively correlated with cortisol concentration (p ≤ 0.05) in the first testing session (before training intervention). Values were positively correlated with concentration of total testosterone, free testosterone and total testosterone/cortisol, and free testosterone/cortisol ratios during exercise (p ≤ 0.05) in the second testing session (after training intervention). Biochemical indices of overtraining were correlated with maximum oxygen uptake in each session and with the impulse of force at the ventilatory threshold and the maximum load of exercise. Thus, there is an indirect relationship between maximal aerobic capacity and the impulse of force. The measurement of the impulse of force can become a simple and effective method for evaluating the overall exercise capacity of rowers because of its relationship with indices of the load and changes in hormonal indices of anabolic and catabolic processes during exercise. Therefore, it may constitute a replacement for the traditional laboratory measurement of VO_2max in highly qualified rowers and canoeists.

Effects of Moderate- versus Mixed-Intensity Training on VO2peak in Young Well-Trained Rowers

The effects of moderate-intensity continuous training (MICT) and a combination of MICT and high-intensity interval training (HIIT) on rowing performance and VO₂peak were investigated in young athletes. Seventeen well-trained rowers (aged 15 ± 1.3 years) were randomly allocated to an intervention (IG) (n = 10) and control group (CG) (n = 7). During 8 weeks, both groups took part in the regular rowing training (3×/week MICT, 70–90 min, 65–70% of HRpeak + 2×/week resistance training). The IG completed an additional high-intensity interval training twice weekly (2 × 4 × 2 min at ≈95% of HRpeak, 60 s rest). Instead of the HIIT, the CG completed two more MICT sessions (70–90 min, 65–70% of HRpeak). Before and after the intervention, a 2000 m time trial and an exercise test were performed. The IG showed a significant improvement (p = 0.001) regarding the absolute rowing time in the graded exercise test. Furthermore, the intervention group showed a significant increase in relative VO₂peak (p = 0.023), a significant increase in absolute VO₂peak (p = 0.036), and a significant improvement in the 2000 m time trail (p = 0.003). No significant changes could be detected in the CG. The interaction effects were not significant. A mixed-intensity training, including HIIT, was beneficial on rowing performance and VO₂peak in highly trained athletes.

Programming Interval Training to Optimize Time-Trial Performance: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

BACKGROUND

Interval training has become an essential component of endurance training programs because it can facilitate a substantial improvement in endurance sport performance. Two forms of interval training that are commonly used to improve endurance sport performance are high-intensity interval training (HIIT) and sprint interval training (SIT). Despite extensive research, there is no consensus concerning the optimal method to manipulate the interval training programming variables to maximize endurance performance for differing individuals.

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this manuscript was to perform a systematic review and meta-analysis of interval training studies to determine the influence that individual characteristics and training variables have on time-trial (TT) performance.

DATA SOURCES

SPORTDiscus and Medline with Full Text were explored to conduct a systematic literature search.

STUDY SELECTION

The following criteria were used to select studies appropriate for the review: 1. the studies were prospective in nature; 2. included individuals between the ages of 18 and 65 years; 3. included an interval training (HIIT or SIT) program at least 2 weeks in duration; 4. included a TT test that required participants to complete a set distance; 5. and programmed HIIT by power or velocity.

RESULTS

Twenty-nine studies met the inclusion criteria for the quantitative analysis with a total of 67 separate groups. The participants included males (n = 400) and females (n = 91) with a mean group age of 25 (range 19-45) years and mean [Formula: see text] of 52 (range 32-70) mL·kg^-1·min^-1. The training status of the participants comprised of inactive (n = 75), active (n = 146) and trained (n = 258) individuals. Training status played a significant role in improvements in TT performance with trained individuals only seeing improvements of approximately 2% whereas individuals of lower training status demonstrated improvements as high as 6%. The change in TT performance with HIIT depended on the duration but not the intensity of the interval work-bout. There was a dose-response relationship with the number of HIIT sessions, training weeks and total work with changes in TT performance. However, the dose-response was not present with SIT.

CONCLUSION

Optimization of interval training programs to produce TT performance improvements should be done according to training status. Our analysis suggests that increasing interval training dose beyond minimal requirements may not augment the training response. In addition, optimal dosing differs between high intensity and sprint interval programs.

Additive Benefits of β-Alanine Supplementation and Sprint-Interval Training

PURPOSE

The present study investigated the effects of β-alanine supplementation only, and in combination with sprint-interval training (SIT), on training intensity, and energy provision and performance during exhaustive supramaximal-intensity cycling and a 4- and 10-km time trial (TT).

METHODS

Fourteen trained cyclists (V˙O2max = 4.5 ± 0.6 L·min) participated in this placebo-controlled, double-blind study. Subjects performed a supramaximal cycling test to exhaustion (equivalent to 120% V˙O2max) and a 4- and 10-km TT and 4 × 1-km sprints at three time points: before and after 28 d of supplementation loading (6.4 g·d) with β-alanine (n = 7) or a placebo (n = 7), and after a 5-wk supervised, SIT program performed twice weekly (repeated 1-km cycling sprints) while maintaining supplementation with β-alanine (1.2 g·d) or a placebo.

RESULTS

After the loading period, sprints 3 and 4 of the 4 × 1-km sprint intervals were improved with β-alanine supplementation (4.5% ± 3.4% and 7.0% ± 4.0%; P < 0.05, respectively). After 5 wk of SIT, training intensity increased in both groups but the change was greater with β-alanine supplementation (9.9% ± 5.0% vs 4.9% ± 5.0%; P = 0.04). β-alanine supplementation also improved supramaximal cycling time to exhaustion to a greater extent than placebo (14.9% ± 9.2% vs 9.0% ± 6.9%; P = 0.04), whereas 4- and 10-km TT performance improved to a similar magnitude in both groups. After SIT, β-alanine also increased anaerobic capacity (5.5% ± 4.2%; P = 0.04), whereas V˙O2peak increased similarly in each group (3.1% ± 2.9% vs 3.5% ± 2.9%; P < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

These findings indicate that β-alanine supplementation enhances training intensity during SIT and provides additional benefits to exhaustive supramaximal cycling compared with SIT alone.