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Mikkonen RS, Ihalainen JK, Hackney AC, Häkkinen K. Perspectives on Concurrent Strength and Endurance Training in Healthy Adult Females: A Systematic Review. Sports Med 2024; 54:673-696. [PMID: 37948036 PMCID: PMC10978686 DOI: 10.1007/s40279-023-01955-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/16/2023] [Indexed: 11/12/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Both strength and endurance training are included in global exercise recommendations and are the main components of training programs for competitive sports. While an abundance of research has been published regarding concurrent strength and endurance training, only a small portion of this research has been conducted in females or has addressed their unique physiological circumstances (e.g., hormonal profiles related to menstrual cycle phase, menstrual dysfunction, and hormonal contraceptive use), which may influence training responses and adaptations. OBJECTIVE The aim was to complete a systematic review of the scientific literature regarding training adaptations following concurrent strength and endurance training in apparently healthy adult females. METHODS A systematic electronic search for articles was performed in July 2021 and again in December 2022 using PubMed and Medline. This review followed, where applicable, the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. The quality of the included studies was assessed using a modified Downs and Black checklist. Inclusion criteria were (1) fully published peer-reviewed publications; (2) study published in English; (3) participants were healthy normal weight or overweight females of reproductive age (mean age between > 18 and < 50) or presented as a group (n > 5) in studies including both females and males and where female results were reported separately; (4) participants were randomly assigned to intervention groups, when warranted, and the study included measures of maximal strength and endurance performance; and (5) the duration of the intervention was ≥ 8 weeks to ensure a meaningful training duration. RESULTS Fourteen studies met the inclusion criteria (seven combined strength training with running, four with cycling, and three with rowing or cross-country skiing). These studies indicated that concurrent strength and endurance training generally increases parameters associated with strength and endurance performance in female participants, while several other health benefits such as, e.g., improved body composition and blood lipid profile were reported in individual studies. The presence of an "interference effect" in females could not be assessed from the included studies as this was not the focus of any included research and single-mode training groups were not always included alongside concurrent training groups. Importantly, the influence of concurrent training on fast-force production was limited, while the unique circumstances affecting females were not considered/reported in most studies. Overall study quality was low to moderate. CONCLUSION Concurrent strength and endurance training appears to be beneficial in increasing strength and endurance capacity in females; however, multiple research paradigms must be explored to better understand the influence of concurrent training modalities in females. Future research should explore the influence of concurrent strength and endurance training on fast-force production, the possible presence of an "interference effect" in athletic populations, and the influence of unique circumstances, such as hormone profile, on training responses and adaptations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ritva S Mikkonen
- Sports Technology Unit, Biology of Physical Activity, Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Kidekuja 2, 88610, Vuokatti, Finland.
| | - Johanna K Ihalainen
- Biology of Physical Activity, Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Jyvaskyla, Finland
| | - Anthony C Hackney
- Department of Exercise and Sport Science, and Department of Nutrition, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Keijo Häkkinen
- Biology of Physical Activity, Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Jyvaskyla, Finland
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Nolan D, McNulty KL, Manninen M, Egan B. The Effect of Hormonal Contraceptive Use on Skeletal Muscle Hypertrophy, Power and Strength Adaptations to Resistance Exercise Training: A Systematic Review and Multilevel Meta-analysis. Sports Med 2024; 54:105-125. [PMID: 37755666 PMCID: PMC10798924 DOI: 10.1007/s40279-023-01911-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/10/2023] [Indexed: 09/28/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Resistance exercise training is widely used by general and athletic populations to increase skeletal muscle hypertrophy, power and strength. Endogenous sex hormones influence various bodily functions, including possibly exercise performance, and may influence adaptive changes in response to exercise training. Hormonal contraceptive (HC) use modulates the profile of endogenous sex hormones, and therefore, there is increasing interest in the impact, if any, of HC use on adaptive responses to resistance exercise training. OBJECTIVE Our aim is to provide a quantitative synthesis of the effect of HC use on skeletal muscle hypertrophy, power and strength adaptations in response to resistance exercise training. METHODS A systematic review with meta-analysis was conducted on experimental studies which directly compared skeletal muscle hypertrophy, power and strength adaptations following resistance exercise training in hormonal contraceptive users and non-users conducted before July 2023. The search using the online databases PUBMED, SPORTDiscus, Web of Science, Embase and other supplementary search strategies yielded 4669 articles, with 8 articles (54 effects and 325 participants) meeting the inclusion criteria. The methodological quality of the included studies was assessed using the "Tool for the assessment of study quality and reporting in exercise". RESULTS All included studies investigated the influence of oral contraceptive pills (OCP), with no study including participants using other forms of HC. The articles were analysed using a meta-analytic multilevel maximum likelihood estimator model. The results indicate that OCP use does not have a significant effect on hypertrophy [0.01, 95% confidence interval (CI) [- 0.11, 0.13], t = 0.14, p = 0.90), power (- 0.04, 95% CI [- 0.93, 0.84], t = - 0.29, p = 0.80) or strength (0.10, 95% CI [- 0.08, 0.28], t = 1.48, p = 0.20). DISCUSSION Based on the present analysis, there is no evidence-based rationale to advocate for or against the use of OCPs in females partaking in resistance exercise training to increase hypertrophy, power and/or strength. Rather, an individualised approach considering an individual's response to OCPs, their reasons for use and menstrual cycle history may be more appropriate. REGISTRATION The review protocol was registered on PROSPERO (ID number and hyperlink: CRD42022365677).
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Affiliation(s)
- David Nolan
- School of Health and Human Performance, Dublin City University, Glasnevin, Dublin 9, Ireland
| | - Kelly L McNulty
- Sport, Health & Exercise (SHE) Research Group, Department of Sport and Health Sciences, Technological University of the Shannon, Athlone, Co. Westmeath, Ireland
- UPMC Sports Medicine and UPMC Institute for Health, UPMC, Pittsburgh, Ireland
| | - Mika Manninen
- School of Health and Human Performance, Dublin City University, Glasnevin, Dublin 9, Ireland
| | - Brendan Egan
- School of Health and Human Performance, Dublin City University, Glasnevin, Dublin 9, Ireland.
- Florida Institute of Human and Machine Cognition, Pensacola, FL, USA.
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3
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Sung ES, Han A, Hinrichs T, Vorgerd M, Platen P. Effects of oral contraceptive use on muscle strength, muscle thickness, and fiber size and composition in young women undergoing 12 weeks of strength training: a cohort study. BMC Womens Health 2022; 22:150. [PMID: 35538569 PMCID: PMC9092708 DOI: 10.1186/s12905-022-01740-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2021] [Accepted: 04/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Background It is suspected that hormonal fluctuations during menstruation may cause different responses to strength training in women who use oral contraceptives (OC) versus those who do not. However, previous studies that investigated the existence of such differences produced conflicting results. In this study, we hypothesized that OC use has no effect on muscle strength and hypertrophy among women undergoing strength training. Thus, we compared the differences in muscle strength and thickness among women who used OCs and those who did not. Methods We investigated the influence of OC use on muscle strength (Fmax), muscle thickness (Mtk), type 1-to-type 2 muscle fiber (NO) ratio, muscle fiber thickness (MFT), and nuclear-to-fiber (N/F) ratio. Seventy-four healthy young women (including 34 who used OCs and 40 who did not) underwent 12 weeks of submaximal strength training, after which Fmax was evaluated using a leg-press machine with a combined force and load cell, while Mtk was measured using real-time ultrasonography. Moreover, the NO ratio, MFT, and N/F ratio were evaluated using muscle needle biopsies. Results Participants in the non-OC and OC groups experienced increases in Fmax (+ 23.30 ± 10.82 kg and + 28.02 ± 11.50 kg respectively, p = 0.073), Mtk (+ 0.48 ± 0.47 cm2 and + 0.50 ± 0.44 cm2 respectively, p = 0.888), Fmax/Mtk (+ 2.78 ± 1.93 kg/cm2 and + 3.32 ± 2.37 kg/cm2 respectively, p = 0.285), NO ratio (type 2 fibers: + 1.86 ± 6.49% and − 4.17 ± 9.48% respectively, p = 0.169), MFT (type 2 fibers: + 7.15 ± 7.50 µm and + 4.07 ± 9.30 µm respectively, p = 0.435), and N/F ratio (+ 0.61 ± 1.02 and + 0.15 ± 0.97 respectively, p = 0.866) after training. There were no significant differences between the non-OC and OC groups in any of these parameters (p > 0.05). Conclusions The effects of 12 weeks of strength training on Fmax, muscle thickness, muscle fiber size, and composition were similar in young women irrespective of their OC use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eun-Sook Sung
- Department of Physical Education, Korea University, Seoul, Republic of Korea.,Department of Sports Medicine and Sports Nutrition, Faculty of Sport Science, Ruhr-University Bochum, Gesundheitscampus Nord, Haus 10, 44801, Bochum, Germany
| | - Ahreum Han
- Department of Sports Medicine and Sports Nutrition, Faculty of Sport Science, Ruhr-University Bochum, Gesundheitscampus Nord, Haus 10, 44801, Bochum, Germany
| | - Timo Hinrichs
- Department of Sports Medicine and Sports Nutrition, Faculty of Sport Science, Ruhr-University Bochum, Gesundheitscampus Nord, Haus 10, 44801, Bochum, Germany.,Division of Sports and Exercise Medicine, Department of Sport, Exercise and Health, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Matthias Vorgerd
- Department of Neurology, Kliniken Bergmannsheil, Ruhr-University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Petra Platen
- Department of Sports Medicine and Sports Nutrition, Faculty of Sport Science, Ruhr-University Bochum, Gesundheitscampus Nord, Haus 10, 44801, Bochum, Germany.
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Nolan D, Elliott-Sale KJ, Egan B. Prevalence of hormonal contraceptive use and reported side effects of the menstrual cycle and hormonal contraceptive use in powerlifting and rugby. PHYSICIAN SPORTSMED 2022; 51:217-222. [PMID: 34991413 DOI: 10.1080/00913847.2021.2024774] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES The prevalence of hormonal contraceptive (HC) use and the associated symptomology of use or nonuse are under-studied in athletic populations, and in particular, in strength and collision sports. This study aimed to investigate the prevalence of hormonal contraceptive use and reported side effects of the menstrual cycle and hormonal contraceptive use in powerlifters and rugby players. METHODS Competitive female powerlifters and rugby players (aged ≥18 y), representing a strength and a collision sport respectively, completed an anonymous online questionnaire for the purpose of assessing self-reported prevalence of HC use, and symptoms of the menstrual cycle and HC use. Athletes were categorized by sport (powerlifters, n = 149; rugby players, n = 135) in order to conduct a stratified analysis. For open-ended questions, a content analysis was conducted to categorize responses, and frequency analyses were performed. RESULTS Current HC use was reported by 51.1% of athletes, with similar prevalence for the two sports (powerlifting, 48.3% vs. rugby, 54.1%, P = 0.34). Side effects of the menstrual cycle were reported in 83.5% of non-HC users, with the most common being unspecified cramping (42.4%), headache/migraine (24.5%), and fatigue (24.5%). Side effects were reported in 40.0% of HC users, with the most common being mood changes (17.9%), stomach pain (8.3%) and headaches/migraines (6.9%). CONCLUSION A large proportion of HC users and nonusers in this study experience negative side effects of HC use and the menstrual cycle, respectively. The symptoms experienced by both groups are wide-ranging, with a high degree of variation between individuals. The negative side-effects experienced by HC users and nonusers may have an influence on athletic performance, and this requires future investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Nolan
- School of Health and Human Performance, Dublin City University, Dublin, Ireland
| | | | - Brendan Egan
- School of Health and Human Performance, Dublin City University, Dublin, Ireland.,Florida Institute for Human and Machine Cognition, Pensacola, FL, USA
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Castanier C, Bougault V, Teulier C, Jaffré C, Schiano-Lomoriello S, Vibarel-Rebot N, Villemain A, Rieth N, Le-Scanff C, Buisson C, Collomp K. The Specificities of Elite Female Athletes: A Multidisciplinary Approach. Life (Basel) 2021; 11:622. [PMID: 34206866 PMCID: PMC8303304 DOI: 10.3390/life11070622] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2021] [Revised: 06/21/2021] [Accepted: 06/23/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Female athletes have garnered considerable attention in the last few years as more and more women participate in sports events. However, despite the well-known repercussions of female sex hormones, few studies have investigated the specificities of elite female athletes. In this review, we present the current but still limited data on how normal menstrual phases, altered menstrual phases, and hormonal contraception affect both physical and cognitive performances in these elite athletes. To examine the implicated mechanisms, as well as the potential performances and health risks in this population, we then take a broader multidisciplinary approach and report on the causal/reciprocal relationships between hormonal status and mental and physical health in young (18-40 years) healthy females, both trained and untrained. We thus cover the research on both physiological and psychological variables, as well as on the Athlete Biological Passport used for anti-doping purposes. We consider the fairly frequent discrepancies and summarize the current knowledge in this new field of interest. Last, we conclude with some practical guidelines for eliciting improvements in physical and cognitive performance while minimizing the health risks for female athletes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carole Castanier
- CIAMS, Université Paris-Saclay, 91405 Orsay, France; (C.C.); (C.T.); (S.S.-L.); (N.V.-R.); (A.V.); (N.R.); (C.L.-S.)
- CIAMS, Université d’Orléans, 45067 Orléans, France
| | | | - Caroline Teulier
- CIAMS, Université Paris-Saclay, 91405 Orsay, France; (C.C.); (C.T.); (S.S.-L.); (N.V.-R.); (A.V.); (N.R.); (C.L.-S.)
- CIAMS, Université d’Orléans, 45067 Orléans, France
| | | | - Sandrine Schiano-Lomoriello
- CIAMS, Université Paris-Saclay, 91405 Orsay, France; (C.C.); (C.T.); (S.S.-L.); (N.V.-R.); (A.V.); (N.R.); (C.L.-S.)
- CIAMS, Université d’Orléans, 45067 Orléans, France
| | - Nancy Vibarel-Rebot
- CIAMS, Université Paris-Saclay, 91405 Orsay, France; (C.C.); (C.T.); (S.S.-L.); (N.V.-R.); (A.V.); (N.R.); (C.L.-S.)
- CIAMS, Université d’Orléans, 45067 Orléans, France
| | - Aude Villemain
- CIAMS, Université Paris-Saclay, 91405 Orsay, France; (C.C.); (C.T.); (S.S.-L.); (N.V.-R.); (A.V.); (N.R.); (C.L.-S.)
- CIAMS, Université d’Orléans, 45067 Orléans, France
| | - Nathalie Rieth
- CIAMS, Université Paris-Saclay, 91405 Orsay, France; (C.C.); (C.T.); (S.S.-L.); (N.V.-R.); (A.V.); (N.R.); (C.L.-S.)
- CIAMS, Université d’Orléans, 45067 Orléans, France
| | - Christine Le-Scanff
- CIAMS, Université Paris-Saclay, 91405 Orsay, France; (C.C.); (C.T.); (S.S.-L.); (N.V.-R.); (A.V.); (N.R.); (C.L.-S.)
- CIAMS, Université d’Orléans, 45067 Orléans, France
| | - Corinne Buisson
- Département des Analyses, AFLD, 92290 Chatenay-Malabry, France;
| | - Katia Collomp
- CIAMS, Université Paris-Saclay, 91405 Orsay, France; (C.C.); (C.T.); (S.S.-L.); (N.V.-R.); (A.V.); (N.R.); (C.L.-S.)
- CIAMS, Université d’Orléans, 45067 Orléans, France
- Département des Analyses, AFLD, 92290 Chatenay-Malabry, France;
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6
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Dasa MS, Kristoffersen M, Ersvær E, Bovim LP, Bjørkhaug L, Moe-Nilssen R, Sagen JV, Haukenes I. The Female Menstrual Cycles Effect on Strength and Power Parameters in High-Level Female Team Athletes. Front Physiol 2021; 12:600668. [PMID: 33692699 PMCID: PMC7937612 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2021.600668] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2020] [Accepted: 01/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose The female menstrual cycle (MC) is characterized by hormonal fluctuations throughout its different phases. However, research regarding its effect on athletic performance in high level athletes is sparse. The aim of this study was to (i) investigate the female MCs effect on strength and power performance in highly trained female team athletes throughout the MC and (ii) examine whether eumenorrheic participants with natural hormonal fluctuations displayed enhanced performance in the follicular phase (FP) versus the luteal phase (LP), compared to controls using hormonal contraceptives. Materials and Methods A total of 29 athletes (Age 21.2 ± 3.3 years; weight 65.6 ± 8.7 kg; height 170.2 ± 8.0 cm; and fat free mass 52.7 ± 7.1) completed the study after a 6-week testing period (8 eumenorrheic participants and 21 hormonal contraceptive controls). Participants were recruited from the team sports soccer, handball and volleyball. Testing protocol consisted of maximal voluntary isometric grip strength, 20-m sprint, countermovement jump and pneumatic leg-press. Based on self-reported use of hormonal contraceptives, participants were divided into non-hormonal contraceptive group and hormonal contraceptive group, the latter working as a control group. Differences in performance between the FP and LP were investigated. MC phase was confirmed by serum hormonal levels through venous blood samples in the non-hormonal contraceptive group. Results There were no statistically significant changes for the two different phases of the MC, in terms of physical performance for the whole group. Further, there was no significant difference between groups during the MC for any of the outcome variables, maximal voluntary isometric grip strength F(3.29) = 0.362; 20-m sprint F(3.24) = 0.710; countermovement jump F(3.26) = 2.361; and leg-press F(3.26) = 1.746. Conclusion In high level female team athletes, no difference in performance was observed based on hormonal contraceptive status. This suggests that the MC does not alter acute strength and power performance on a group level in high level team athletes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcus S Dasa
- Department of Global Public Health and Primary Care, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
| | - Morten Kristoffersen
- Department of Sport, Food, and Natural Sciences, Western Norway University of Applied Sciences, Bergen, Norway
| | - Elisabeth Ersvær
- Department of Safety, Chemistry, and Biomedical Laboratory Sciences, Western Norway University of Applied Sciences, Bergen, Norway
| | - Lars Peder Bovim
- Department of Health and Functioning, Western Norway University of Applied Sciences, Bergen, Norway
| | - Lise Bjørkhaug
- Department of Safety, Chemistry, and Biomedical Laboratory Sciences, Western Norway University of Applied Sciences, Bergen, Norway
| | - Rolf Moe-Nilssen
- Department of Global Public Health and Primary Care, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
| | - Jørn V Sagen
- Department of Clinical Science, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway.,Department of Medical Biochemistry and Pharmacology, Haukeland University Hospital, Bergen, Norway
| | - Inger Haukenes
- Department of Global Public Health and Primary Care, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway.,Research Unit for General Practice, NORCE Norwegian Research Centre, Bergen, Norway
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Taipale RS, Forssell J, Ihalainen JK, Kyröläinen H, Häkkinen K. A 10-Week Block of Combined High-Intensity Endurance and Strength Training Produced Similar Changes in Dynamic Strength, Body Composition, and Serum Hormones in Women and Men. Front Sports Act Living 2020; 2:581305. [PMID: 33345149 PMCID: PMC7739745 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2020.581305] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2020] [Accepted: 08/19/2020] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose: To examine the potential sex differences in adaptations to combined endurance and strength training in recreationally endurance trained (eumenorrheic) women (n = 9) and men (n = 10). Methods: Isometric (ISOMmax) and dynamic bilateral leg press (1RM), countermovement jump (CMJ), running performance (3,000 m time trial), lean mass and body fat % (LEAN and FAT% determined by dual X-ray absorptiometry) as well as serum testosterone and cortisol (TES and COR, respectively, measured using hormone-specific immunoassay kits) were examined before a control period and pre, mid, and post a supervised 10-week combined high-intensity interval endurance training (4 × 4 min intervals and 3 × 3 × 100 m repeated sprints) and mixed maximal and explosive strength training. No more than 2 weeks separated training and testing for either women or men and all women were tested in the early follicular phase of the menstrual cycle to minimize the possible influence of menstrual cycle phase on performance measures. Results: Absolute and relative changes in 1RM, CMJ, 3,000 m, LEAN, and FAT% were similar between groups. The only statistically significant differences observed between groups were observed at post and included a larger Δ% increase in ISOMmax force in men and a relatively greater Δ% decrease in serum TES in women. Conclusion: Women and men can achieve similar relative adaptations in dynamic maximal strength and CMJ as well as endurance performance gains and body composition over the same high-intensity 10-week combined program, although relative adaptations in TES may differ.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ritva S Taipale
- Sports Technology Unit, Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Vuokatti, Finland.,Neuromuscular Research Center, Biology of Physical Activity, Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - Jaakko Forssell
- Neuromuscular Research Center, Biology of Physical Activity, Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - Johanna K Ihalainen
- Neuromuscular Research Center, Biology of Physical Activity, Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - Heikki Kyröläinen
- Neuromuscular Research Center, Biology of Physical Activity, Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - Keijo Häkkinen
- Neuromuscular Research Center, Biology of Physical Activity, Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland
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8
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Ihalainen JK, Hackney AC, Taipale RS. Changes in inflammation markers after a 10-week high-intensity combined strength and endurance training block in women: The effect of hormonal contraceptive use. J Sci Med Sport 2019; 22:1044-1048. [PMID: 31186194 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsams.2019.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2019] [Revised: 03/19/2019] [Accepted: 04/10/2019] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES The influence of hormonal contraceptives (HC) on inflammation and body composition after high-intensity combined strength and endurance training was investigated. DESIGN Active healthy women formed two training groups: HC users (HCU, n = 9) and those who had never used HC (NHC, n = 9). Training included two strength training sessions and two high-intensity interval training sessions per week for 10 weeks. METHODS Before (PRE) and after (POST) the training intervention, high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hs-CRP), tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and interleukin-1beta (IL-1β) concentrations were measured. Dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry was used to estimate fat mass (FM), abdominal fat mass (aFM), and lean mass (LM). RESULTS Circulating concentrations of hs-CRP decreased significantly in the NHC from pre to post with -0.46 mg l-1 (95% CI: -0.78, -0.14, p = 0.009, ES = 0.434), whereas a significant increase was observed in HCU from pre to post with 0.89 mg l-1 (95% CI: 1.66, 0.12, p = 0.048, ES = 1.988) with a significant between-group difference (p = 0.015). In addition, hs-CRP concentration was significantly higher in HCU than in NHC after training (p = 0.036) at post. Lean mass increased significantly more in NHC than in HCU (p = 0.049). CONCLUSIONS High-intensity combined strength and endurance training can modify inflammation and body composition of women. The present study showed that inflammation, in terms of hs-CRP was higher post training in HCU than NHC, which may be associated with smaller gains in lean mass in response to training.
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Affiliation(s)
- J K Ihalainen
- Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Finland; Department of Health Sciences, Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre, Mid Sweden University, Sweden.
| | - A C Hackney
- University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, USA
| | - R S Taipale
- Kajaani University of Applied Sciences, Finland
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