Do Combined Oculomotor and Bimanual Coordination Exercises Instantly Stabilize Balance in Athletes?

Purpose

This study examined the immediate effects of oculomotor and bimanual coordination exercises, as well as a combination of the two, on stability of balance in athletes.

Patients and Methods

Changes in center-of-gravity sway were measured in 30 college student athletes before and after the following three exercise conditions: 1) oculomotor exercises, 2) bimanual coordination exercises, and 3) a combination of oculomotor and bimanual coordination exercises (1+2). The order of these exercises was counterbalanced.

Results

The combination of exercises (condition 3) reduced large swaying during balancing and immediately increased postural stability. Moreover, the oculomotor and bimanual coordination exercises (conditions 1 and 2) immediately reduced large sway during balancing when performed independently. Thus, the present study revealed that the combination of oculomotor and bimanual coordination exercises immediately reduced accidental swaying during balancing and also improved postural stability.

Conclusion

This combination could be effective as an immediate balance adjustment method for athletes.

Impact of neuromuscular training including balance, strength and plyometric exercises on static and dynamic balance in high-level male runners with mild intellectual disability

BACKGROUND

This study aims to investigate the impact of neuromuscular training (NMT) on static and dynamic postural balance (PB) among high-level male runners with intellectual disability.

METHOD

Twenty-seven runners were randomly assigned to a NMT group and a control group who maintained their conventional training. Static and dynamic PB were assessed using the centre of pressure (CoP) excursions (in bipedal and unipedal stances under open eyes (OE) and closed eyes (CE) conditions) and the star excursion balance test (SEBT), respectively, at pre-training and post-training.

RESULTS

The NMT group showed significantly (p < 0.05) decreased CoP values and increased SEBT scores at post-training compared to pre-training. The switch from OE to CE did not affect static PB in the bipedal stance, only in the NMT group.

CONCLUSIONS

The NMT was effective in improving static and dynamic PB in runners with intellectual disability. The NMT could reduce visual dependency.

Movement Balance Evaluation for Basketball Training Through Multi-Source Sensors

Balance ability is the basic sports quality of athletes. For basketball players, balance training includes take-off, turning, confrontation, shooting, landing, and other links. If the players have good balance ability, they can effectively prevent sports injury and competition interference and improve the performance of basketball competition. This paper adopts the acceleration signals from multi-source sensors to evaluate movement balance for basketball training. First, acceleration signals are collected by acceleration sensors to depict the basketball player's actions. Second, the hidden Markov model is used to describe the change or transfer of different states during player's actions. Third, the acceleration signal and observation sequence from hidden Markov are used to determine whether the player is under imbalance state. The effectiveness is evaluated on a private dataset.

Effects of athletic training on physical fitness and stroke velocity in healthy youth and adult tennis players: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Better physical fitness and stroke velocity in healthy elite compared to sub-elite tennis players have been shown in previous studies. However, evidence-based knowledge regarding the effectiveness of athletic training on physical fitness and stroke velocity is currently lacking. Thus, the objective of this systematic review with meta-analysis was to characterize, aggregate, and quantify athletic training effects on measures of physical fitness and stroke velocity in healthy youth and adult tennis players. A computerized systematic literature search was performed in the databases PubMed, Web of Science, and SportDiscus from their inception date to August 2022. Studies were included, among others, if the intervention period lasted a minimum of four weeks and if at least one parameter of physical fitness (i.e., speed, agility, lower-extremity muscle power, upper-extremity muscle power/strength, endurance, balance, flexibility) or stroke performance (i.e., stroke velocity) was tested. Initially, 11,511 articles were identified, after removing duplicates and assessing abstracts and full texts, 24 articles were used to calculate weighted standardized mean differences (SMD). For measures of physical fitness, athletic training resulted in small (speed: SMD = 0.44), moderate (endurance: SMD = 0.61, upper-extremity muscle power: SMD = 0.72; flexibility: SMD = 0.63), and large (agility: SMD = 0.93, lower-extremity muscle power: SMD = 0.88; upper-extremity muscle strength: SMD = 0.90; balance: SMD = 0.88) effects. Further, a large effect (SMD = 0.90) on stroke velocity was detected. The additionally performed sub-analyses showed differences in the effectiveness of athletic training on variables of physical fitness and stroke speed when considering players' age (i.e., youth players: <18 years; adult players: ≥18 years). Precisely, there was a high potential for training-related adaptations in adult players with respect to lower-extremity muscle power, upper-extremity muscle strength, and stroke velocity and in youth players with respect to endurance. Interventions to promote physical fitness and stroke velocity in healthy tennis players revealed varying levels of effectiveness ranging from small to large and these were additionally affected by players' age. Therefore, future studies should investigate modalities to increase training efficacy in youth and adult tennis players, especially for fitness components that showed small- to moderate-sized changes.

Relevance and Effectiveness of Combined Resistance and Balance Training to Improve Balance and Muscular Fitness in Healthy Youth and Youth Athletes: A Scoping Review

BACKGROUND

Balance and resistance training applied as single-mode interventions have proven to enhance measures of balance and/or muscular fitness in youth and youth athletes. Less is known on the effectiveness of combined or sequenced balance and resistance training in youth and youth athletes.

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this scoping review was to describe the effects of concurrently performed balance and resistance training (i.e., metastable resistance training) and different sequencing schemes of balance and resistance training on measures of balance and/or muscular fitness in healthy youth and youth athletes. We additionally aimed to identify knowledge gaps in the literature.

METHODS

According to the principles of a scoping review, we followed a broad research question, identified gaps in the literature, and reported findings on the level of single studies but did not aggregate and meta-analyze outcomes across studies. For this purpose, systematic literature searches were conducted in the electronic databases PubMed (including MEDLINE), Web of Science, and SPORTDiscus from inception until August 2022. We included metastable resistance training and sequenced balance and resistance training studies in healthy youth and youth athletes aged 6-18 years that investigated the training-induced effects on measures of balance (e.g., stork balance test) and muscular fitness (e.g., countermovement jump test) in contrast to active/passive controls. The Physiotherapy Evidence Database (PEDro) scale was used to assess the risk of bias. The Strength of Recommendation Taxonomy (SORT) was applied for the whole scoping review on levels A (high strength of recommendation) to C (low strength of recommendation) and for individual studies on levels 1 (high-quality evidence) to 3 (low-quality evidence).

RESULTS

The strength of recommendation for the scoping review was level B based on inconsistent or limited-quality evidence. Eleven randomized controlled trials were eligible to be included in this scoping review and each study was rated as 'limited-quality evidence'. A median PEDro score of 6 was computed across the included studies. Four studies examined the effects of metastable resistance training (e.g., plyometric training on unstable surfaces) on measures of balance and/or muscle fitness in youth athletes. The remaining seven studies investigated the impact of sequenced balance and resistance training (e.g., blocked balance training followed by blocked resistance training) on measures of balance and/or muscle fitness in youth and youth athletes. The duration of the intervention programs ranged from 6 to 10 weeks with 2-weekly to 3-weekly exercise sessions. Participants' age range was 10-18 years (mean 15 years). Ten studies examined young male and female athletes from different sports (i.e., basketball, handball, soccer) and one study physical education students. Metastable resistance training compared with plyometric training performed on stable surfaces showed no extra effect on measures of balance and muscular fitness. Stable plyometric training appears to be even more effective to improve jump performance. Sequenced balance and resistance training in the form of a mesocycle of balance followed by plyometric training seems to be particularly effective to improve measures of balance and muscular fitness in young athletes. This scoping review identified knowledge gaps that may indicate future research avenues: (i) comparative studies should be designed to examine how sex, age, maturity status, and expertise level impact on the adaptive potential following metastable resistance training or sequenced balance and resistance training in youth and youth athletes, (ii) at least one established measure of balance and muscular fitness should always be included in study designs to allow future comparison between studies and to aggregate (meta-analyze) findings across studies and (iii) studies are needed that examine neuromuscular and tendomuscular adaptations following these exercise types as well as dosage effects.

CONCLUSIONS

According to the results of this scoping review, balance training should be an essential training component for youth that is incorporated with the resistance training exercises or introduced at least a month before resistance and plyometric training within a periodized training program. More research is needed to examine the moderating roles of age, maturity status, and sex.

Scoring of Human Body-Balance Ability on Wobble Board Based on the Geometric Solution

Many studies have reported that the human body-balance ability was essential in the early detection and self-management of chronic diseases. However, devices to measure balance, such as motion capture and force plates, are expensive and require a particular space for installation as well as specialized knowledge for analysis. Therefore, this study aimed to propose and verify a new algorithm to score the human body-balance ability on the wobble board (HBBAWB), based on a geometric solution using a cheap and portable device. Although the center of gravity (COG), the projected point of the center of mass (COM) on the fixed ground, has been used as the index for the balance ability, generally, it was not proper to use the COG under the condition of no fixed environment. The reason was that the COG index did not include the information on the slope for the wobble. Thus, this study defined the new index as the perpendicular-projection point (PPP), which was the projected point of the COM on the tilted plane. The proposed geometric solution utilized the relationship among three points, the PPP, the COM, and the middle point between the two feet, via linear regression. The experimental results found that the geometric solution, which utilized the relationship between the three angles of the equivalent model, enabled us to score the HBBAWB.

THE SCIENTIFIC SYSTEM OF HUMAN CORE BALANCE IN SPORTS

ABSTRACT Introduction: The human brain controls the body's balance, actinh on the muscle tissues of the body and thus controlling the balance of its center of gravity. Objective: To analyze 6 indicators that affect the brain's ability to control the body's balance and to verify the important muscle areas of the human body and prove that strength training can help improve the body's balance ability. Methods: This article selected young university students with the same physical fitness as sample and analyzed the factors that affect the body's strength and balance using statistical models. Results: Strength training can effectively improve the body›s balance when standing. Conclusion: Training the brain to control the body is mainly to exercise strength, stability, balance, and other abilities of human muscle tissue. Using this kind of exercise method can effectively improve the stability of the human body. Targeted training can also enhance the brain's ability to control the balance of the body. Level of evidence II; Therapeutic studies - investigation of treatment results.

Effects of balance exercises during daily tooth brushing on balance performance in healthy children

BACKGROUND

It has been shown that supervised balance training is effective in improving balance performance in children but relatively costly in terms of personnel, materials, and time. Integrating balance exercises into daily routines such as tooth brushing reduces these needs, but its effectiveness is unknown.

OBJECTIVE

This study investigated the impact of balance exercises performed during daily tooth brushing on measures of static and dynamic balance in healthy children.

METHODS

Fifty-five healthy children were assigned to either an intervention (n = 32, age: 9.5 ± 0.7 years) or a control (n = 23, age: 9.2 ± 0.5 years) group. Participants of the intervention group performed progressive balance exercises while tooth brushing on a daily basis (2 sessions per day × 3 min per session) for eight weeks. Static (i.e., timed one-legged stance test [OLS]) and dynamic (i.e., Lower Quarter Y Balance test [YBT-LQ]) balance were tested before and after the intervention period.

RESULTS

The adherence rate to exercise was 98% for the participants of the intervention group. Significant test × group interactions in favor of the intervention group were detected in three out of four OLS stance conditions and for all YBT-LQ reach directions.

CONCLUSIONS

Eight weeks of balance exercises while tooth brushing proved to be feasible (i.e., high adherence rate) and effective (i.e., enhanced static and dynamic balance performance) and is thus recommended to improve postural control in healthy children.

Effects of Different Balance Training Volumes on Children's Dynamic Balance

Concerning balance training, the most effective design of several load dimensions (e. g., training frequency, volume) is unclear. Thus, we determined the effects of different balance training volumes on dynamic balance in healthy children. Three groups of 20 children (age: 11.0±0.7 years; 47% females) were randomly assigned to a balance training group using a low or a high training volume or an active control group that performed regular physical education lessons. All groups trained for 8 weeks (2 sessions/week), whereby balance training volume amounted to 4 min/session and 18-24 min/session for the low- and high-volume group, respectively. Pre- and post-training, balance performance was assessed using the Lower Quarter Y-Balance Test and the Timed-Up-and-Go Test. Fifty-five children completed the study and significant Test x Group interactions were detected for both outcome measures in favor of the two balance training groups. Additionally, improvements in the high-volume group were significantly larger for some measures (Y-balance test anterior reach distance: p <.001, d =.94; Timed-Up-and-Go time: p =.003, d =.81) compared to the low-volume group. The results indicate that balance training is effective to improve balance performance in healthy children and it seems that a 36-48 min/week compared to an 8 min/week training volume provides additional effects.

Effects of Plyometric Jump Training on Balance Performance in Healthy Participants: A Systematic Review With Meta-Analysis

Background: Postural balance represents a fundamental movement skill for the successful performance of everyday and sport-related activities. There is ample evidence on the effectiveness of balance training on balance performance in athletic and non-athletic population. However, less is known on potential transfer effects of other training types, such as plyometric jump training (PJT) on measures of balance. Given that PJT is a highly dynamic exercise mode with various forms of jump-landing tasks, high levels of postural control are needed to successfully perform PJT exercises. Accordingly, PJT has the potential to not only improve measures of muscle strength and power but also balance. Objective: To systematically review and synthetize evidence from randomized and non-randomized controlled trials regarding the effects of PJT on measures of balance in apparently healthy participants. Methods: Systematic literature searches were performed in the electronic databases PubMed, Web of Science, and SCOPUS. A PICOS approach was applied to define inclusion criteria, (i) apparently healthy participants, with no restrictions on their fitness level, sex, or age, (ii) a PJT program, (iii) active controls (any sport-related activity) or specific active controls (a specific exercise type such as balance training), (iv) assessment of dynamic, static balance pre- and post-PJT, (v) randomized controlled trials and controlled trials. The methodological quality of studies was assessed using the Physiotherapy Evidence Database (PEDro) scale. This meta-analysis was computed using the inverse variance random-effects model. The significance level was set at p <0.05. Results: The initial search retrieved 8,251 plus 23 records identified through other sources. Forty-two articles met our inclusion criteria for qualitative and 38 for quantitative analysis (1,806 participants [990 males, 816 females], age range 9-63 years). PJT interventions lasted between 4 and 36 weeks. The median PEDro score was 6 and no study had low methodological quality (≤3). The analysis revealed significant small effects of PJT on overall (dynamic and static) balance (ES = 0.46; 95% CI = 0.32-0.61; p < 0.001), dynamic (e.g., Y-balance test) balance (ES = 0.50; 95% CI = 0.30-0.71; p < 0.001), and static (e.g., flamingo balance test) balance (ES = 0.49; 95% CI = 0.31-0.67; p < 0.001). The moderator analyses revealed that sex and/or age did not moderate balance performance outcomes. When PJT was compared to specific active controls (i.e., participants undergoing balance training, whole body vibration training, resistance training), both PJT and alternative training methods showed similar effects on overall (dynamic and static) balance (p = 0.534). Specifically, when PJT was compared to balance training, both training types showed similar effects on overall (dynamic and static) balance (p = 0.514). Conclusion: Compared to active controls, PJT showed small effects on overall balance, dynamic and static balance. Additionally, PJT produced similar balance improvements compared to other training types (i.e., balance training). Although PJT is widely used in athletic and recreational sport settings to improve athletes' physical fitness (e.g., jumping; sprinting), our systematic review with meta-analysis is novel in as much as it indicates that PJT also improves balance performance. The observed PJT-related balance enhancements were irrespective of sex and participants' age. Therefore, PJT appears to be an adequate training regime to improve balance in both, athletic and recreational settings.

Acute effects of different balance exercise types on selected measures of physical fitness in youth female volleyball players

BACKGROUND

Earlier studies have shown that balance training (BT) has the potential to induce performance enhancements in selected components of physical fitness (i.e., balance, muscle strength, power, speed). While there is ample evidence on the long-term effects of BT on components of physical fitness in youth, less is known on the short-term or acute effects of single BT sessions on selected measures of physical fitness.

OBJECTIVE

To examine the acute effects of different balance exercise types on balance, change-of-direction (CoD) speed, and jump performance in youth female volleyball players.

METHODS

Eleven female players aged 14 years participated in this study. Three types of balance exercises (i.e., anterior, posterolateral, rotational type) were conducted in randomized order. For each exercise, 3 sets including 5 repetitions were performed. Before and after the performance of the balance exercises, participants were tested for their static balance (center of pressure surface area [CoP SA] and velocity [CoP V]) on foam and firm surfaces, CoD speed (T-Half test), and vertical jump height (countermovement jump [CMJ] height). A 3 (condition: anterior, mediolateral, rotational balance exercise type) × 2 (time: pre, post) analysis of variance was computed with repeated measures on time.

RESULTS

Findings showed no significant condition × time interactions for all outcome measures (p > 0.05). However, there were small main effects of time for CoP SA on firm and foam surfaces (both d = 0.38; all p < 0.05) with no effect for CoP V on both surface conditions (p > 0.05). For CoD speed, findings showed a large main effect of time (d = 0.91; p < 0.001). However, for CMJ height, no main effect of time was observed (p > 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

Overall, our results indicated small-to-large changes in balance and CoD speed performances but not in CMJ height in youth female volleyball players, regardless of the balance exercise type. Accordingly, it is recommended to regularly integrate balance exercises before the performance of sport-specific training to optimize performance development in youth female volleyball players.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

This study does not report results related to health care interventions using human participants and therefore it was not prospectively registered.

The Effects of Combined Balance and Complex Training Versus Complex Training Only on Measures of Physical Fitness in Young Female Handball Players

PURPOSE

To examine the effects of balance exercises conducted prior to complex training (bCT) versus complex training (CT) only on measures of physical fitness in young female elite handball players.

METHODS

Participants aged 17 years were randomly assigned to bCT (n = 11) or CT (n = 12). The 2 training interventions lasted 8 weeks with 2 sessions per week in replacement of some technical/tactical handball exercises and were matched for total training volume. Before and after training, tests were performed for the evaluation of proxies of muscle power (countermovement jump height, standing long-jump distance, and reactive strength index), muscle strength (back half-squat 1-repetition maximum), dynamic balance (Y-balance test), linear sprint speed (20-m sprint test), and change-of-direction speed (T test).

RESULTS

Two-factor repeated-measures analysis of variance revealed significant group × time interactions for the reactive strength index (d = 0.99, P = .03) and Y-balance test score (d = 1.32, P < .01). Post hoc analysis indicated significant pre-post reactive strength index improvements in CT (d = 0.69, P = .04) only. For the Y-balance test, significant pre-post increases were found in bCT (d = 0.71, P = .04) with no significant changes in CT (d = 0.61, P = .07). In addition, significant main effects of time were observed for half-squat 1-repetition maximum, countermovement jump, standing long jump, and T test performance (d = 1.50 to 3.10, P < .05).

CONCLUSIONS

Both bCT and CT interventions were effective in improving specific measures of physical fitness in young elite female handball players. If the training goal is to improve balance in addition, balance exercises can be conducted within a CT training session and prior to CT exercises.

Effects of balance training on balance performance in youth: role of training difficulty

BACKGROUND

Cross-sectional studies have shown that balance performance can be challenged by the level of task difficulty (e.g., varying stance conditions, sensory manipulations). However, it remains unclear whether the application of different levels of task difficulty during balance training (BT) leads to altered adaptations in balance performance. Thus, we examined the effects of BT conducted under a high versus a low level of task difficulty on balance performance.

METHODS

Forty male adolescents were randomly assigned to a BT program using a low (BT-low: n = 20; age: 12.4 ± 2.0 yrs) or a high (BT-high: n = 20; age: 12.5 ± 2.5 yrs) level of balance task difficulty. Both groups trained for 7 weeks (2 sessions/week, 30-35 min each). Pre- and post-training assessments included measures of static (one-legged stance [OLS] time), dynamic (10-m gait velocity), and proactive (Y-Balance Test [YBT] reach distance, Functional Reach Test [FRT]; Timed-Up-and-Go Test [TUG]) balance.

RESULTS

Significant main effects of Test (i.e., pre- to post-test improvements) were observed for all but one balance measure (i.e., 10-m gait velocity). Additionally, a Test x Group interaction was detected for the FRT in favor of the BT-high group (Δ + 8%, p < 0.001, d = 0.35). Further, tendencies toward significant Test x Group interactions were found for the YBT anterior reach (in favor of BT-high: Δ + 9%, p < 0.001, d = 0.60) and for the OLS with eyes opened and on firm surface (in favor of BT-low: Δ + 31%, p = 0.003, d = 0.67).

CONCLUSIONS

Following 7 weeks of BT, enhancements in measures of static, dynamic, and proactive balance were observed in the BT-high and BT-low groups. However, BT-high appears to be more effective for increasing measures of proactive balance, whereas BT-low seems to be more effective for improving proxies of static balance.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

Current Controlled Trials ISRCTN83638708  (Retrospectively registered 19th June, 2020).

Seasonal Changes in Anthropometry, Body Composition, and Physical Fitness and the Relationships with Sporting Success in Young Sub-Elite Judo Athletes: An Exploratory Study

This exploratory study aimed to monitor long-term seasonal developments in measures of anthropometry, body composition, and physical fitness in young judo athletes, and to compute associations between these measures and sporting success. Forty-four young judoka (20 females, 24 males) volunteered to participate. Tests for the assessment of anthropometry (e.g., body height/mass), body-composition (e.g., lean body mass), muscle strength (isometric handgrip strength), vertical jumping (e.g., countermovement-jump (CMJ) height), and dynamic balance (Y-balance test) were conducted at the beginning and end of a 10-month training season. Additionally, sporting success at the end of the season was recorded for each athlete. Analyses revealed significant time × sex interaction effects for lean-body-mass, isometric handgrip strength, and CMJ height (0.7 ≤ d ≤ 1.6). Post-hoc analyses showed larger gains for all measures in young males (1.9 ≤ d ≤6.0) compared with females (d = 2.4) across the season. Additionally, significant increases in body height and mass as well as Y-balance test scores were found from pre-to-post-test (1.2 ≤ d ≤4.3), irrespective of sex. Further, non-significant small-to-moderate-sized correlations were identified between changes in anthropometry/body composition/physical fitness and sporting success (p > 0.05; -0.34 ≤ ρ ≤ 0.32). Regression analysis confirmed that no model significantly predicted sporting success. Ten months of judo training and/or growth/maturation contributed to significant changes in anthropometry, body composition, and physical fitness, particularly in young male judo athletes.