Ependyma-expressed CCN1 restricts the size of the neural stem cell pool in the adult ventricular-subventricular zone

Ependymal cilia decline and AQP4 upregulation in young adult rats with syringomyelia

BACKGROUND

Syringomyelia was a rare condition characterized by the formation of fluid-filled cysts (syrinx) within the spinal cord, resulting in sensory and motor dysfunction. Currently, there was no satisfactory treatment for syringomyelia. Ependymal cells were integral to water transport and may represent a promising therapeutic target.

METHODS

Induction of syringomyelia occurred in 8-week old female rats followed by histological analyses at 3-, 7-, 14-, 30-, 60-, 180-, and 365-days later. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) and transmission electron microscope (TEM) were performed to visualize cilia on rat central canal membrane cells at 30-day post-induction. Syringomyelia was induced via compression at T12-T13 using a sterile cotton ball. Each rat underwent MRI scanning one day before induction and one day prior to sacrifice. In vivo magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) was utilized to measure syrinx enlargement in eight-week-old syringomyelia rats. Histological Analysis and immunofluorescence staining were performed for changes of cilia, neurons, expression of AQP4 and infiltration of immune cells into spinal tissue.

RESULTS

In the current study, the cell junctions between ependymal cells of syringomyelia rats were absent, and the cilia on ependymal cells were reduced significantly on day 30 post syringomyelia. The number of ependymal cells kept increasing lasting for 1-2 months and begin to decrease. Edema and vacuolation in the spinal cord tissue are significant in syringomyelia rats. Furthermore, AQP4 expression was elevated in astrocytes of syringomyelia rats, and IBA1+ immune cells infiltrated spinal tissue. Furthermore, neuronal necrosis began in the acute stage of syringomyelia, and reached its peak one month later. Pathological changes in axonal rupture at anterior commissure (connection of the left and right white matter) could be observed in syringomyelia spinal tissue.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings underscored the significance of cilia on ependymal cells and the evolving microenvironment post-syringomyelia, providing valuable insights for clinical treatment strategies for this condition.

Sustaining Brain Youth by Neural Stem Cells: Physiological and Therapeutic Perspectives

In the last two decades, stem cells (SCs) have attracted considerable interest for their research value and therapeutic potential in many fields, namely in neuroscience. On the other hand, the discovery of adult neurogenesis, the process by which new neurons are generated in the adult brain, challenged the traditional view that the brain is a static structure after development. The recent findings showing that adult neurogenesis has a significant role in brain plasticity, learning and memory, and emotional behavior, together with the fact that it is strongly dependent on several external and internal factors, have sparked more interest in this area. The mechanisms of adult neural stem cell (NSC) regulation, the physiological role of NSC-mediated neuroplasticity throughout life, and the most recent NSC-based therapeutic applications will be concisely reviewed. Noteworthy, due to their multipotency, self-renewal potential, and ability to secrete growth and immunomodulatory factors, NSCs have been mainly suggested for (1) transplantation, (2) neurotoxicology tests, and (3) drug screening approaches. The clinical trials of NSC-based therapy for different neurologic conditions are, nonetheless, mostly in the early phases and have not yet demonstrated conclusive efficacy or safety. Here, we provide an outlook of the major challenges and limitations, as well as some promising directions that could help to move toward stem cell widespread use in the treatment and prevention of several neurological disorders.

Addressing the Effect of Exercise on Glial Cells: Focus on Ependymal Cells

A growing body of research highlights the positive impact of regular physical activity on improving physical and mental health. On the other hand, physical inactivity is one of the leading risk factors for noncommunicable diseases and death worldwide. Exercise profoundly impacts various body districts, including the central nervous system. Here, overwhelming evidence exists that physical exercise affects neurons and glial cells, by promoting their interaction. Physical exercise directly acts on ependymal cells by promoting their proliferation and activation, maintaing brain homeostasis in healthy animals and promote locomotor recovery after spinal cord injury. This review aims to describe the main anatomical characteristics and functions of ependymal cells and provide an overview of the effects of different types of physical exercise on glial cells, focusing on the ependymal cells.

Multiciliated ependymal cells: an update on biology and pathology in the adult brain

Mature multiciliated ependymal cells line the cerebral ventricles where they form a partial barrier between the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and brain parenchyma and regulate local CSF microcirculation through coordinated ciliary beating. Although the ependyma is a highly specialized brain interface with barrier, trophic, and perhaps even regenerative capacity, it remains a misfit in the canon of glial neurobiology. We provide an update to seminal reviews in the field by conducting a scoping review of the post-2010 mature multiciliated ependymal cell literature. We delineate how recent findings have either called into question or substantiated classical views of the ependymal cell. Beyond this synthesis, we document the basic methodologies and study characteristics used to describe multiciliated ependymal cells since 1980. Our review serves as a comprehensive resource for future investigations of mature multiciliated ependymal cells.

Astrocyte CCN1 stabilizes neural circuits in the adult brain

Neural circuits in many brain regions are refined by experience. Sensory circuits support higher plasticity at younger ages during critical periods - times of circuit refinement and maturation - and limit plasticity in adulthood for circuit stability. The mechanisms underlying these differing plasticity levels and how they serve to maintain and stabilize the properties of sensory circuits remain largely unclear. By combining a transcriptomic approach with ex vivo electrophysiology and in vivo imaging techniques, we identify that astrocytes release cellular communication network factor 1 (CCN1) to maintain synapse and circuit stability in the visual cortex. By overexpressing CCN1 in critical period astrocytes, we find that it promotes the maturation of inhibitory circuits and limits ocular dominance plasticity. Conversely, by knocking out astrocyte CCN1 in adults, binocular circuits are destabilized. These studies establish CCN1 as a novel astrocyte-secreted factor that stabilizes neuronal circuits. Moreover, they demonstrate that the composition and properties of sensory circuits require ongoing maintenance in adulthood, and that these maintenance cues are provided by astrocytes.

Adult neurogenesis research in China

Neural stem cells are multipotent stem cells that generate functional newborn neurons through a process called neurogenesis. Neurogenesis in the adult brain is tightly regulated and plays a pivotal role in the maintenance of brain function. Disruption of adult neurogenesis impairs cognitive function and is correlated with numerous neurologic disorders. Deciphering the mechanisms underlying adult neurogenesis not only advances our understanding of how the brain functions, but also offers new insight into neurologic diseases and potentially contributes to the development of effective treatments. The field of adult neurogenesis is experiencing significant growth in China. Chinese researchers have demonstrated a multitude of factors governing adult neurogenesis and revealed the underlying mechanisms of and correlations between adult neurogenesis and neurologic disorders. Here, we provide an overview of recent advancements in the field of adult neurogenesis due to Chinese scientists.

The pathological potential of ependymal cells in mild traumatic brain injury

Mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) is a common neurological condition affecting millions of individuals worldwide. Although the pathology of mTBI is not fully understood, ependymal cells present a promising approach for studying the pathogenesis of mTBI. Previous studies have revealed that DNA damage in the form of γH2AX accumulates in ependymal cells following mTBI, with evidence of widespread cellular senescence in the brain. Ependymal ciliary dysfunction has also been observed, leading to altered cerebrospinal fluid homeostasis. Even though ependymal cells have not been extensively studied in the context of mTBI, these observations reflect the pathological potential of ependymal cells that may underlie the neuropathological and clinical presentations of mTBI. This mini review explores the molecular and structural alterations that have been reported in ependymal cells following mTBI, as well as the potential pathological mechanisms mediated by ependymal cells that may contribute to overall dysfunction of the brain post-mTBI. Specifically, we address the topics of DNA damage-induced cellular senescence, dysregulation of cerebrospinal fluid homeostasis, and the consequences of impaired ependymal cell barriers. Moreover, we highlight potential ependymal cell-based therapies for the treatment of mTBI, with a focus on neurogenesis, ependymal cell repair, and modulation of senescence signaling pathways. Further insight and research in this field will help to establish the role of ependymal cells in the pathogenesis of mTBI and may lead to improved treatments that leverage ependymal cells to target the origins of mTBI pathology.

Therapeutic strategies to recover ependymal barrier after inflammatory damage: relevance for recovering neurogenesis during development

The epithelium covering the surfaces of the cerebral ventricular system is known as the ependyma, and is essential for maintaining the physical and functional integrity of the central nervous system. Additionally, the ependyma plays an essential role in neurogenesis, neuroinflammatory modulation and neurodegenerative diseases. Ependyma barrier is severely affected by perinatal hemorrhages and infections that cross the blood brain barrier. The recovery and regeneration of ependyma after damage are key to stabilizing neuroinflammatory and neurodegenerative processes that are critical during early postnatal ages. Unfortunately, there are no effective therapies to regenerate this tissue in human patients. Here, the roles of the ependymal barrier in the context of neurogenesis and homeostasis are reviewed, and future research lines for development of actual therapeutic strategies are discussed.

CCN-Hippo YAP signaling in vision and its role in neuronal, glial and vascular cell function and behavior

The retina is a highly specialized tissue composed of a network of neurons, glia, and vascular and epithelial cells; all working together to coordinate and transduce visual signals to the brain. The retinal extracellular matrix (ECM) shapes the structural environment in the retina but also supplies resident cells with proper chemical and mechanical signals to regulate cell function and behavior and maintain tissue homeostasis. As such, the ECM affects virtually all aspects of retina development, function and pathology. ECM-derived regulatory cues influence intracellular signaling and cell function. Reversibly, changes in intracellular signaling programs result in alteration of the ECM and downstream ECM-mediated signaling network. Our functional studies in vitro, genetic studies in mice, and multi omics analyses have provided evidence that a subset of ECM proteins referred to as cellular communication network (CCN) affects several aspects of retinal neuronal and vascular development and function. Retinal progenitor, glia and vascular cells are major sources of CCN proteins particularly CCN1 and CCN2. We found that expression of the CCN1 and CCN2 genes is dependent on the activity of YAP, the core component of the hippo-YAP signaling pathway. Central to the Hippo pathway is a conserved cascade of inhibitory kinases that regulate the activity of YAP, the final transducer of this pathway. Reversibly, YAP expression and/or activity is dependent on CCN1 and CCN2 downstream signaling, which creates a positive or negative feedforward loop driving developmental processes (e.g., neurogenesis, gliogenesis, angiogenesis, barriergenesis) and, when dysregulated, disease progression in a range of retinal neurovascular disorders. Here we describe mechanistic hints involving the CCN-Hippo-YAP regulatory axis in retina development and function. This regulatory pathway represents an opportunity for targeted therapies in neurovascular and neurodegenerative diseases. The CCN-YAP regulatory loop in development and pathology.

The matricellular protein Drosophila Cellular Communication Network Factor is required for synaptic transmission and female fertility

Within the extracellular matrix, matricellular proteins are dynamically expressed nonstructural proteins that interact with cell surface receptors, growth factors, and proteases, as well as with structural matrix proteins. The cellular communication network factors family of matricellular proteins serve regulatory roles to regulate cell function and are defined by their conserved multimodular organization. Here, we characterize the expression and neuronal requirement for the Drosophila cellular communication network factor family member. Drosophila cellular communication network factor is expressed in the nervous system throughout development including in subsets of monoamine-expressing neurons. Drosophila cellular communication network factor-expressing abdominal ganglion neurons innervate the ovaries and uterus and the loss of Drosophila cellular communication network factor results in reduced female fertility. In addition, Drosophila cellular communication network factor accumulates at the synaptic cleft and is required for neurotransmission at the larval neuromuscular junction. Analyzing the function of the single Drosophila cellular communication network factor family member will enhance our potential to understand how the microenvironment impacts neurotransmitter release in distinct cellular contexts and in response to activity.

Gut brain interaction theory reveals gut microbiota mediated neurogenesis and traditional Chinese medicine research strategies

Adult neurogenesis is the process of differentiation of neural stem cells (NSCs) into neurons and glial cells in certain areas of the adult brain. Defects in neurogenesis can lead to neurodegenerative diseases, mental disorders, and other maladies. This process is directionally regulated by transcription factors, the Wnt and Notch pathway, the extracellular matrix, and various growth factors. External factors like stress, physical exercise, diet, medications, etc., affect neurogenesis and the gut microbiota. The gut microbiota may affect NSCs through vagal, immune and chemical pathways, and other pathways. Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) has been proven to affect NSCs proliferation and differentiation and can regulate the abundance and metabolites produced by intestinal microorganisms. However, the underlying mechanisms by which these factors regulate neurogenesis through the gut microbiota are not fully understood. In this review, we describe the recent evidence on the role of the gut microbiota in neurogenesis. Moreover, we hypothesize on the characteristics of the microbiota-gut-brain axis based on bacterial phyla, including microbiota's metabolites, and neuronal and immune pathways while providing an outlook on TCM's potential effects on adult neurogenesis by regulating gut microbiota.

CCN1 interacts with integrins to regulate intestinal stem cell proliferation and differentiation

Intestinal stem cells (ISCs) at the crypt base contribute to intestinal homeostasis through a balance between self-renewal and differentiation. However, the molecular mechanisms regulating this homeostatic balance remain elusive. Here we show that the matricellular protein CCN1/CYR61 coordinately regulates ISC proliferation and differentiation through distinct pathways emanating from CCN1 interaction with integrins α_vβ₃/α_vβ₅. Mice that delete Ccn1 in Lgr5 + ISCs or express mutant CCN1 unable to bind integrins α_vβ₃/α_vβ₅ exhibited exuberant ISC expansion and enhanced differentiation into secretory cells at the expense of absorptive enterocytes in the small intestine, leading to nutrient malabsorption. Analysis of crypt organoids revealed that through integrins α_vβ₃/α_vβ₅, CCN1 induces NF-κB-dependent Jag1 expression to regulate Notch activation for differentiation and promotes Src-mediated YAP activation and Dkk1 expression to control Wnt signaling for proliferation. Moreover, CCN1 and YAP amplify the activities of each other in a regulatory loop. These findings establish CCN1 as a niche factor in the intestinal crypts, providing insights into how matrix signaling exerts overarching control of ISC homeostasis.

Intestinal stem cells contribute to homeostasis through a balance between self-renewal and differentiation. Here the authors show that CCN1 is an intestinal stem cell niche factor that activates integrin αvβ3/αvβ5 signaling to regulate proliferation and differentiation through distinct downstream pathways.

Assessing the Role of Ependymal and Vascular Cells as Sources of Extracellular Cues Regulating the Mouse Ventricular-Subventricular Zone Neurogenic Niche

Neurogenesis persists in selected regions of the adult mouse brain; among them, the ventricular-subventricular zone (V-SVZ) of the lateral ventricles represents a major experimental paradigm due to its conspicuous neurogenic output. Postnatal V-SVZ neurogenesis is maintained by a resident population of neural stem cells (NSCs). Although V-SVZ NSCs are largely quiescent, they can be activated to enter the cell cycle, self-renew and generate progeny that gives rise to olfactory bulb interneurons. These adult-born neurons integrate into existing circuits to modify cognitive functions in response to external stimuli, but cells shed by V-SVZ NSCs can also reach injured brain regions, suggesting a latent regenerative potential. The V-SVZ is endowed with a specialized microenvironment, which is essential to maintain the proliferative and neurogenic potential of NSCs, and to preserve the NSC pool from exhaustion by finely tuning their quiescent and active states. Intercellular communication is paramount to the stem cell niche properties of the V-SVZ, and several extracellular signals acting in the niche milieu have been identified. An important part of these signals comes from non-neural cell types, such as local vascular cells, ependymal and glial cells. Understanding the crosstalk between NSCs and other niche components may aid therapeutic approaches for neuropathological conditions, since neurodevelopmental disorders, age-related cognitive decline and neurodegenerative diseases have been associated with dysfunctional neurogenic niches. Here, we review recent advances in the study of the complex interactions between V-SVZ NSCs and their cellular niche. We focus on the extracellular cues produced by ependymal and vascular cells that regulate NSC behavior in the mouse postnatal V-SVZ, and discuss the potential implication of these molecular signals in pathological conditions.

Isolation of neural stem and oligodendrocyte progenitor cells from the brain of live rats

Postnatal brain neural stem and progenitor cells (NSPCs) cluster in anatomically inaccessible stem cell niches, such as the subependymal zone (SEZ). Here, we describe a method for the isolation of NSPCs from live animals, which we term “milking.” The intracerebroventricular injection of a release cocktail, containing neuraminidase, integrin-β1-blocking antibody, and fibroblast growth factor 2, induces the controlled flow of NSPCs in the cerebrospinal fluid, where they are collected via liquid biopsies. Isolated cells retain key in vivo self-renewal properties and their cell-type profile reflects the cell composition of their source area, while the function of the niche is sustained even 8 months post-milking. By changing the target area more caudally, we also isolate oligodendrocyte progenitor cells (OPCs) from the corpus callosum. This novel approach for sampling NSPCs and OPCs paves the way for performing longitudinal studies in experimental animals, for more in vivo relevant cell culture assays, and for future clinical neuro-regenerative applications.

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Isolation of brain neural stem and oligodendrocyte progenitor cells from live rats

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Cells are induced to flow from their niche into the cerebrospinal fluid

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Neurogenesis persists despite long-term ependymal damage/loss

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Collected cells retain the properties of endogenous neural stem/progenitor cells

Ependyma-expressed CCN1 restricts the size of the neural stem cell pool in the adult ventricular-subventricular zone

Adult neural stem cells (NSCs) reside in specialized niches, which hold a balanced number of NSCs, their progeny, and other cells. How niche capacity is regulated to contain a specific number of NSCs remains unclear. Here, we show that ependyma-derived matricellular protein CCN1 (cellular communication network factor 1) negatively regulates niche capacity and NSC number in the adult ventricular-subventricular zone (V-SVZ). Adult ependyma-specific deletion of Ccn1 transiently enhanced NSC proliferation and reduced neuronal differentiation in mice, increasing the numbers of NSCs and NSC units. Although proliferation of NSCs and neurogenesis seen in Ccn1 knockout mice eventually returned to normal, the expanded NSC pool was maintained in the V-SVZ until old age. Inhibition of EGFR signaling prevented expansion of the NSC population observed in CCN1 deficient mice. Thus, ependyma-derived CCN1 restricts NSC expansion in the adult brain to maintain the proper niche capacity of the V-SVZ.