Alcohol and violent pornography: responses to permissive and nonpermissive cues

Sexual Aggression Analogues Used in Alcohol Administration Research: Critical Review of Their Correspondence to Alcohol-Involved Sexual Assaults

BACKGROUND

Alcohol administration studies are crucial because causal questions about alcohol's role in human behavior can only be answered through experimental research that randomly assigns participants to drink conditions. The primary goal of this review was to catalogue the characteristics of experimental analogues used in alcohol administration research to assess men's sexual aggression proclivity and evaluate the extent to which they represent the scope of alcohol-involved sexual aggression. Although this review focuses on sexual aggression analogues, the identified methodological issues are relevant to a wide range of alcohol administration studies.

METHODS

Online databases were searched for published studies that randomly assigned participants to drink conditions and assessed participants' sexual aggression proclivity with an experimental analogue. Characteristics of the analogues were coded by both authors.

RESULTS

Seventeen studies were identified that used 12 unique experimental analogues. All of the analogues depicted a completed or potential sexual assault in an apartment between a male perpetrator and female victim who did not know each other well. This information was presented in written (n = 7), audio (n = 1), video (n = 3), or virtual simulation (n = 1) format. Sexual aggression proclivity was measured through participants' self-reports (n = 10) and behavioral responses (n = 2). Perpetrators primarily used physical force which the woman verbally and physically resisted. Only one analogue depicted behavioral signs of the woman's alcohol impairment; none included signs of the man's alcohol impairment.

CONCLUSIONS

These analogues were designed to address important theoretical questions; however, they do not represent the full range of alcohol-involved sexual assaults. This hampers the development of evidence-based prevention and treatment programs because we do not know whether these findings generalize to other types of sexual assaults (e.g., with incapacitated victims, within serious relationships, with sexual and other gender minorities). Funding agencies need to support more alcohol administration research in order to provide a strong foundation for the development of effective interventions.

A Within-Subjects Analysis of Men's Alcohol-Involved and Nonalcohol-Involved Sexual Assaults

Previous research has determined that alcohol use is frequently associated with sexual aggression perpetration. However, little research has examined the differences between alcohol-involved and nonalcohol-involved assaults among men who are repeat perpetrators of sexual aggression. Eighty men from the community who had self-reported perpetration of two or more sexual assaults, including at least one assault in which the participant was drinking and one assault in which they were sober, were recruited for a within-subjects survey. Data analysis examined the differences between participants' most recent alcohol-involved assault and their most recent nonalcohol-involved assault. A variety of differences were observed between nonalcohol and alcohol-involved assaults including the participants' primary appraisals, secondary appraisals, and the degree of force they used to obtain unwanted sex. These results provide further insight into the effect that alcohol has on perpetration of sexual aggression. Limitations and directions for future research are also discussed.

Pornography Use by Sex Offenders at the Time of the Index Offense: Characterization and Predictors

The purpose of this study was to characterize and predict sex offenders' pornography consumption at the time of the index offense. Participants were 146 male sex offenders incarcerated in a Portuguese prison establishment. A semi-structured interview and the Wilson Sex Fantasy Questionnaire were administered. While for some individuals pornography did not appear to play a role in their offenses, there were others whose prolonged use led to more sex fantasies and urges to enact the visualized contents. As pornography does not have the same effects on all people, management officials should bear this in mind when tailoring specific treatment programs.

Emotion Regulation Moderates the Relationship Between Alcohol Consumption and the Perpetration of Sexual Aggression

Sexual assault remains a significant problem on college campuses, and previous research identifies alcohol and emotion regulation as potential contributors to perpetration. Data were collected from 101 male undergraduates, assessing emotion regulation difficulties, sexual aggression perpetration toward women, and alcohol consumption. Results showed that emotion regulation moderated the relationship between alcohol consumption and sexual aggression, such that those with high emotion regulation difficulties were more likely to behave in a sexually aggressive manner. Thus, men with high emotion regulation difficulties may be more likely than those with low difficulties to use alcohol to overcome their inhibitions and perpetrate sexual aggression.

The Contribution of Alcohol to the Likelihood of Completion and Severity of Injury in Rape Incidents

Alcohol use has consistently been linked to violent crime including sexual assault. However, its effect on the likelihood of rape completion and victim injury has not been explored. This article examines the effect of the perpetrator's alcohol consumption on the probability that a rape will be completed and the likelihood and seriousness of physical injuries to victims of rape. Using data from the National Crime Victimization Survey of the Bureau of Justice Statistics for 1992 through 1994, the authors test three hypotheses regarding the effect of perpetrator drinking using multivariate models to control for situational factors and victim's demographic characteristics. The data suggest that drinking by the perpetrator decreases the likelihood that a rape will be completed, increases the likelihood of victim injury, and shows no relationship between perpetrator drinking and the victim's need for medical care.

When Women Imbibe

The present research examines how alcohol, or even the illusion of imbibing alcohol, affects women's perceived self-efficacy for avoiding HIV. Women ( N= 82) were randomly assigned to one of four conditions in a 2 (alcohol or no alcohol) × 2 (expect alcohol or not) balanced placebo design. After consuming alcoholic or nonalcoholic beverages, participants assessed their self-efficacy for HIV risk prevention. Both alcohol consumption and alcohol expectancy increased women's confidence that they could detect whether a potential partner was HIV positive simply by interacting with the potential partner.

Using Experimental Paradigms to Examine Alcohol's Role in Men's Sexual Aggression: Opportunities and Challenges in Proxy Development

The goals of this article are to review the major findings from alcohol administration studies that use sexual aggression proxies and to encourage additional experimental research that evaluates hypotheses about the role of alcohol in the etiology of men's sexual aggression. Experiments allow participants to be randomly assigned to drink conditions, therefore ensuring that any differences between drinkers and nondrinkers can be attributed to their alcohol consumption. One of the biggest challenges faced by experimental researchers is the identification of valid operationalizations of key constructs. The tension between internal and external validity is particularly problematic for violence researchers because they cannot allow participants to engage in the target behavior in the laboratory. The strengths and limitations associated with written vignettes, audiotapes, videotapes, and confederate proxies for sexual aggression are described. Suggestions are made for future research to broaden the generalizability of the findings from experimental research.

Review of survey and experimental research that examines the relationship between alcohol consumption and men's sexual aggression perpetration

This article systematically reviews empirical studies that examine associations between alcohol consumption and men's sexual aggression with the goal of identifying major findings; gaps in current knowledge; and directions for future research, practice, and policy. We identified 25 cross-sectional surveys, 6 prospective studies, and 12 alcohol administration experiments published between 1993 and August 2013 with male college students and young adult (nonincarcerated) samples. Many cross-sectional surveys have demonstrated that distal and proximal measures of men's alcohol consumption are positively associated with sexual assault perpetration, although very few of these studies evaluated how alcohol interacts with other risk and protective factors to exacerbate or inhibit sexual aggression. There are surprisingly few surveys that examine alcohol's effects at the event level and over short-time intervals to identify how changes in alcohol consumption are associated with changes in perpetration status. Alcohol administration studies suggest some important mechanisms that warrant additional investigation.

Sexual Crime in India: Is it Influenced by Pornography?

PURPOSE

Studies on whether pornography poses a greater risk for sexually aggressive behavior have revealed conflicting results. This study aims to examine the relationship between the consumption of pornography and the subsequent increase in sexual violence, thus testing the hypothesis that increase in consumption of pornography is related to increased sexual crime, in the Indian scenario.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The current study explored the association between reported incidence of crime over a period of four decades - 1971-2008 (time periods being divided into: Pre-liberalization and post-liberation - India adopted liberalization policy in 1992) and availability of pornography over internet with a particular focus on crime against women (such as rape, sexual harassment, and crime against women).

RESULTS

Comparison of pre-liberalization and post-liberalization growth of rape rates was not significant. Though there were statistically significant positive correlations between the number of internet users and sexual crime rates, the association was non-significant after controlling for the effects of population growth using regression analysis.

CONCLUSION

Results presented needs to be interpreted with extreme care and caution. Nevertheless, the results from this study suggest that easy access to pornography did not have a significant impact on rape rates and crime rate against women.

A prospective study of sexual assault and alcohol use among first-year college women

This study prospectively examined the relation between alcohol use and sexual assault in a sample (N = 319) of first-year college women. Both frequency of drinking and frequency of binge drinking were measured. Over the course of their freshman year, 19.3% reported experiencing at least one sexual assault. Frequent binge drinking and frequent drinking predicted a subsequent sexual assault; however, experiencing a sexual assault did not predict changes in alcohol use. Frequent binge drinking demonstrated a stronger association with sexual assault than did frequent drinking. Findings help clarify the relation between alcohol use and sexual assault in college women and call for continued differentiation in assessment of alcohol use.

The influence of alcohol expectancies and intoxication on men's aggressive unprotected sexual intentions

An experiment tested the pathways through which alcohol expectancies and intoxication influenced men's self-reported sexual aggression intentions during an unprotected sexual encounter. After a questionnaire session, male social drinkers (N = 124) were randomly assigned to either an alcohol condition (target peak BAC = .08%) or a control condition. Upon completion of beverage consumption, participants read a description of a sexual encounter in which the female partner refused to have unprotected sexual intercourse. Participants then rated their emotional state, their intentions to have unprotected sex with the unwilling partner, and their postincident perceptions of the encounter. Structural equation modeling indicated that intoxicated men reported feeling stronger sexual aggression congruent emotions/motivations such as arousal and anger; however, this effect was moderated by alcohol expectancies. Intoxicated participants with stronger alcohol-aggression expectancies reported greater sexual aggression congruent emotions/motivations than did intoxicated participants with weaker alcohol-aggression expectancies. For sober participants, alcohol-aggression expectancies did not influence emotions/motivations. In turn, stronger sexual assault congruent emotions/motivations predicted greater sexual aggression intentions. Men with greater sexual aggression intentions were less likely to label the situation as a sexual assault and reported less concern about their intended actions. These findings underscore the relevance of both alcohol expectancies and alcohol intoxication to sexual aggression perpetration and highlight the importance of including information about alcohol's influence on both emotional and cognitive responses in sexual aggression prevention work.

Health education's role in framing pornography as a public health issue: local and national strategies with international implications

Pornography is a public health issue. However, since the US Surgeon General's workshop on pornography and public health reached a consensus statement about the impacts of pornography in 1986, few policy actions have been taken to deal with this public health problem, and intense discussion surrounding the regulation of pornography has continued. This debate spans a continuum between individual rights on one extreme and complete restriction of such material for society's good on the other extreme. However, during this same period much research has been done on the impacts of pornography on children and adults. This paper focuses on reviewing the effects of pornography on society including women, children, and consumers, and includes discussion on the current and failed policies aimed at regulating pornography. The growing phenomenon of Internet pornography use is discussed in depth, and specific policy ideas pertaining to Internet pornography are presented from a public health perspective.

Rape-myth congruent beliefs in women resulting from exposure to violent pornography: effects of alcohol and sexual arousal

Previous research findings indicate that women suffer a variety of detrimental effects from exposure to violent pornography. This study used an experimental paradigm to examine the effects of a moderate alcohol dose and alcohol expectancies on women's acute reactions to a violent pornographic stimulus. A community sample of female social drinkers (N = 134) read an eroticized rape depiction after completing an alcohol administration protocol. As predicted, intoxicated participants were less likely to label the depicted events as rape than their sober counterparts. A path analytic model illustrated that participants' self-reported sexual arousal to the stimulus, as influenced by alcohol consumption and expectancies, resulted in increased rape myth congruent perceptions of the victim and decreased labeling of the incident as rape. Findings suggest that acute alcohol intoxication during violent pornography exposure may ultimately result in women developing more calloused attitudes toward rape and rape victims.

Women's responses to sexual aggression: the effects of childhood trauma, alcohol, and prior relationship

This study examined effects of alcohol consumption (control, moderate dose, high dose) and type of relationship (new, established) on women's responses to escalating male sexual aggression. The role of childhood trauma was also examined. After consuming a beverage, participants (N=220) projected themselves into a story portraying a social interaction with a man that depicted escalating sexual aggression. The story was paused 3 times to assess assertive, polite, and passive resistance as well as consent. Alcohol consumption increased consent and interacted with type of relationship to increase passive resistance and with level of sexual aggression to increase polite resistance. Assertive resistance increased and other responses decreased as the man's sexual aggression escalated. Childhood trauma lowered consent initially and increased passive resistance when rape was threatened.

Influence of Subjective Intoxication, Breath Alcohol Concentration, and Expectancies on the Alcohol-Aggression Relation

BACKGROUND

The purpose of this study was to investigate the influence of subjective intoxication, alcohol-aggression expectancies, and breath alcohol concentration (BrAC) on intoxicated aggression in men and women while controlling for dispositional aggressivity.

METHODS

Subjects were 328 (163 men and 165 women) healthy social drinkers between 21 and 35 years of age. Following the consumption of either an alcohol or an active placebo beverage, subjects were tested on a modified version of the Taylor Aggression Paradigm in which mild electric shocks were received from, and administered to, a fictitious opponent during a competitive task. Levels of subjective intoxication and BrAC were measured immediately before subjects began the aggression task. Aggressive behavior was operationalized as the shock intensities administered to the fictitious opponent under conditions of low and high provocation.

RESULTS

Subjective intoxication ratings were not related to aggressive behavior for either men or women. Alcohol-aggression expectancies were related to aggression for men, but this effect was rendered nonsignificant when controlling for dispositional aggressivity, which in turn, was significantly related to the dependent variables for both men and women. Finally, BrAC was also related to aggression above and beyond the effects of dispositional aggressivity, yet only for men.

CONCLUSIONS

Taken as a whole, this study suggests that intoxicated aggression is primarily the result of alcohol's pharmacological properties in conjunction with an aggressive disposition.

Explicating alcohol's role in acquaintance sexual assault: complementary perspectives and convergent findings

This article summarizes the proceedings of a symposium presented at the 2004 meeting of the Research Society on Alcoholism (RSA) in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. There were four presentations and a discussant. The symposium was co-chaired by Tina Zawacki and Jeanette Norris. The first presentation was made by Jeanette Norris, who found that alcohol consumption and preexisting alcohol expectancies affected women's hypothetical responses to a vignette depicting acquaintance sexual aggression. The second presentation was made by Joel Martell, who reported that alcohol-induced impairment of executive cognitive functioning mediated the effect of intoxication on men's perceptions of a sexual assault vignette. In the third presentation, Antonia Abbey found that the experiences of women whose sexual assault involved intoxication or force were more negative than were the experiences of women whose sexual assault involved verbal coercion. The fourth presentation was made by Tina Zawacki, who reported that men who perpetrated sexual assault only in adolescence differed from men who continued perpetration into adulthood in terms of their drinking patterns and attitudes toward women. William H. George discussed these findings in terms of their implications for theory development and prevention programming.

THE EFFECTS OF PAST SEXUAL ASSAULT PERPETRATION AND ALCOHOL CONSUMPTION ON MEN'S REACTIONS TO WOMEN'S MIXED SIGNALS

Theories about misperception of sexual intent, cognitive distortions among rapists, and alcohol's effects on cognition describe processes that may contribute to acquaintance sexual assault. Drawing on these literatures, an experiment was conducted to examine hypotheses about the effects of past sexual assault perpetration and alcohol consumption on 153 college men's reactions to a female confederate. As compared to nonperpetrators, self-acknowledged rapists and verbal coercers reported being more sexually attracted to the confederate. Trained coders were least certain that rapists noticed specific positive and negative cues that the confederate used and most certain that verbal coercers did. Intoxicated participants perceived themselves and their partner as acting more sexually than did sober or placebo participants. Suggestions are discussed for research and treatment programs with college sexual assault perpetrators.

Sexual assault and alcohol consumption: what do we know about their relationship and what types of research are still needed?

Approximately half of all sexual assaults are associated with either the perpetrator's alcohol consumption, the victim's alcohol consumption, or both. Although the emphasis of this review is on alcohol-involved sexual assaults, their unique aspects can only be evaluated by comparing them to other types of sexual assault. Theoretical perspectives on sexual assault that focus on characteristics of the perpetrator, the victim, and the situation are described. A number of personality traits, attitudes, and past experiences have been systematically linked to sexual assault perpetration, including beliefs about alcohol and heavy drinking. In contrast, only a few experiences have been significantly related to sexual assault victimization, including childhood sexual abuse and heavy drinking. There is support for both psychological and pharmacological mechanisms linking alcohol and sexual assault. Beliefs about alcohol's effects reinforce stereotypes about gender roles and can exacerbate their influence on perpetrators' actions. Alcohol's effects on cognitive and motor skills also contribute to sexual assault through their effects on perpetrators' and victims' ability to process and react to each other's verbal and nonverbal behavior. Limitations with existing research and methodological challenges associated with conducting research on this topic are described. Suggestions are made for future research which can inform prevention and treatment programs.

The impact of men's alcohol consumption on perpetration of sexual aggression

Epidemiological and experimental literature examining the link between men's alcohol consumption and perpetration of sexual aggression is reviewed. The following are included in the review: (1) associational studies that examine the correlation between typical alcohol consumption and history of sexual aggression perpetration; (2) event-level studies that examine the impact of alcohol consumption at the time of sexual assault; and (3) experimental studies that consider the impact of administered alcohol on men's responses to a sexual aggression analog. Associational studies suggest a modest correlation between typical alcohol consumption and history of sexual aggression perpetration, but spurious effects may account for much of the relationship. Event-level studies offer mixed evidence in support of a relationship between alcohol consumption at the time of the sexually aggressive incident and severity of outcome. Experimental analog studies provide evidence of a proximal, pharmacological effect of alcohol on the likelihood of sexual aggression perpetration and more modest evidence supporting an alcohol expectancy effect. An integrative heuristic model of alcohol's distal and proximal effects on sexual aggression perpetration is proposed. Priorities for future research include greater specificity in measurement of sexual aggression, examination of alcohol's indirect effects on aggression through context, and consideration of mechanisms other than alcohol myopia in understanding alcohol's proximal effects.

Predicting responses to sexually aggressive stories: the role of consent, interest in sexual aggression, and overall sexual interest

Measures of interest in sexual aggression and overall sexual interest were used to predict men s responses to consensual and nonconsensual stories that contained forceful sexual content. College males (N = 108) listened to these stories and completed questionnaires assessing self-reported sexual arousal and desire, their perceptions of the woman s enjoyment and sexual desire in the stories, their likelihood of acting like the man in the stories, and how likely they would be to read similar stories. Multiple regression analyses revealed that overall sexual interest variables were significant predictors of responses to both consensual and nonconsensual stories, while interest in sexual aggression predicted responses to only the nonconsensual story. The present study highlights the importance of considering overall sexual interest measures in sexual aggression research.

Alcohol-related sexual assault: a common problem among college students

OBJECTIVE

This article summarizes research on the role of alcohol in college students' sexual assault experiences. Sexual assault is extremely common among college students. At least half of these sexual assaults involve alcohol consumption by the perpetrator, the victim or both.

METHOD

Two research literatures were reviewed: the sexual assault literature and the literature that examines alcohol's effects on aggressive and sexual behavior.

RESULTS

Research suggests that alcohol consumption by the perpetrator and/or the victim increases the likelihood of acquaintance sexual assault occurring through multiple pathways. Alcohol's psychological, cognitive and motor effects contribute to sexual assault.

CONCLUSIONS

Although existing research addresses some important questions, there are many gaps. Methodological limitations of past research are noted, and suggestions are made for future research. In addition, recommendations are made for college prevention programs and policy initiatives.

RISK PERCEPTION FOR ACQUAINTANCE SEXUAL AGGRESSION: A SOCIAL-COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE

Beliefs that people hold about sources of harm and their personal susceptibility to harm have been shown to play an important role in their subsequent self-protection. With respect to acquaintance sexual aggression, women generally report low levels of perceived personal risk and, thus, low level preparedness to prevent or protect against this form of threat. In order to develop effective resistance efforts, a more complete understanding is needed of factors that shape perception of risk and how these factors are likely to influence-both positively and negatively-women's risk reduction and self-protection. This article addresses this need by reviewing recent literature on risk perception and identifying relevant applications of theory and findings to women's perception of risk for acquaintance sexual aggression.

A Cognitive Ecological Model of Women's Response to Male Sexual Coercion in Dating

We offer a theoretical model that consolidates background, environmental, and intrapersonal variables related to women's experience of sexual coercion in dating into a coherent ecological framework and present for the first time a cognitive analysis of the processes women use to formulate responses to sexual coercion. An underlying premise for this model is that a woman's coping response to sexual coercion by an acquaintance is mediated through cognitive processing of background and situational influences. Because women encounter this form of sexual coercion in the context of relationships and situations that they presume will follow normative expectations (e.g., about making friends, socializing and dating), it is essential to consider normative processes of learning, cognitive mediation, and coping guiding their efforts to interpret and respond to this form of personal threat. Although acts of coercion unquestionably remain the responsibility of the perpetrator, a more complete understanding of the multilevel factors shaping women's perception of and response to threats can strengthen future inquiry and prevention efforts.