Cuticle Collagen Expression Is Regulated in Response to Environmental Stimuli by the GATA Transcription Factor ELT-3 in Caenorhabditis elegans

Transcriptional responses to chronic oxidative stress require cholinergic activation of G-protein-coupled receptor signaling

Organisms have evolved protective strategies that are geared toward limiting cellular damage and enhancing organismal survival in the face of environmental stresses, but how these protective mechanisms are coordinated remains unclear. Here, we define a requirement for neural activity in mobilizing the antioxidant defenses of the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans both during chronic oxidative stress and prior to its onset. We show that acetylcholine-deficient mutants are particularly vulnerable to chronic oxidative stress. We find that extended oxidative stress mobilizes a broad transcriptional response which is strongly dependent on both cholinergic signaling and activation of the muscarinic G-protein acetylcholine coupled receptor (mAChR) GAR-3. Gene enrichment analysis revealed a lack of upregulation of proteasomal proteolysis machinery in both cholinergic-deficient and gar-3 mAChR mutants, suggesting that muscarinic activation is critical for stress-responsive upregulation of protein degradation pathways. Further, we find that GAR-3 overexpression in cholinergic motor neurons prolongs survival during chronic oxidative stress. Our studies demonstrate neuronal modulation of antioxidant defenses through cholinergic activation of G protein-coupled receptor signaling pathways, defining new potential links between cholinergic signaling, oxidative damage, and neurodegenerative disease.

Calcium-binding protein CALU-1 is essential for proper collagen formation in Caenorhabditis elegans

Collagen, a major component of the extracellular matrix, is crucial for the structural integrity of the Caenorhabditis elegans cuticle. While several proteins involved in collagen biosynthesis have been identified, the complete regulatory network remains unclear. This study investigates the role of CALU-1, an ER-resident calcium-binding protein, in cuticle collagen formation and maintenance. We employed genetic analyses, including the generation of single and double mutants, scanning electron microscopy, and transcriptome profiling to characterize CALU-1 function. Our results demonstrate that CALU-1 is essential for proper cuticle structure, including annuli, furrows, and alae formation. Synthetic lethality was observed between calu-1 and dpy-18 (encoding a prolyl 4-hydroxylase subunit) mutations, while double mutants of calu-1 with peptidyl-prolyl cis-trans isomerase (PPIase) genes exhibited exacerbated phenotypes. CALU-1 deficiency led to altered collagen stability, increased cuticle permeability, and differential expression of stress response genes similar to collagen mutants. We conclude that CALU-1 plays a critical role in regulating collagen biosynthesis, possibly by modulating the ER environment to optimize the function of collagen-modifying enzymes. These findings provide new insights into the complex regulation of extracellular matrix formation in C. elegans, with potential implications for understanding related processes in other organisms.

Identification and Transcriptome Analysis of Bursaphelenchus xylophilus with Excellent Low Temperature Resistance

Bursaphelenchus xylophilus is one of the most destructive quarantine pests, causing irreversible damage to pine trees. However, the unexpected identification of pine wilt disease in Northern China indicates that Bursaphelenchus xylophilus can survive under low temperatures. In this study, we analyzed the reproductivity variations among 18 different isolates, and SC13 was identified to have excellent low temperature resistance. Subsequent molecular analysis of SC13 indicated its distinct gene expression under low temperatures. The epidermal growth factor, nematode cuticle collagen and G-protein-coupled receptor genes with environmental adaptation functions were demonstrated to be differentially expressed under low temperatures. Meanwhile, morphological observations also indicated that SC13 contained significantly more lipid drops in low-temperature treatments. Generally, the identification of representative Bursaphelenchus xylophilus isolates will facilitate relevant studies in the future, and the discovery of the gene expression and morphological changes of Bursaphelenchus xylophilus under low temperatures could expand the current understanding of the environmental adaption abilities of such invasive nematodes.

Structural and physiological functions of Caenorhabditis elegans epidermis

Research on the skin is continuously evolving, and it is imperative to select a streamlined and efficient research model. Caenorhabditis elegans is a free-leaving nematode whose epidermis serves as the primary barrier epithelium, composed of a collagen matrix. Differentiation of the epidermis begins in the middle of embryonic development, including polarization of the cytoskeleton and formation of cell junctions. Cuticle secretion is one of the main developmental and physiological features of the epidermis. Mutations in the collagen genes of individual worms lead to cuticle defects, thereby changing the shape of the animals. The complete genome sequence of C. elegans indicates that more than 170 different collagen genes may be related to this structure. Collagen is a structural protein that plays an important role in the development of extracellular matrix. Different collagen genes are expressed at different stages of matrix synthesis, which may help form specific interactions between different collagens. The differentiated epidermis also plays a key role in the transmission of hormonal signals, fat storage, and ion homeostasis and is closely related to the development and function of the nervous system. The epidermis also provides passive and active defenses against pathogens that penetrate the skin and can repair wounds. In addition, age-dependent epidermal degeneration is a prominent feature of aging and may affect aging and lifespan. This review we highlight recent findings of the structure and related physiological functions of the cuticle of C. elegans. In contrast to previous studies, we offer novel insights into the utilization of C. elegans as valuable models for skin-related investigations. It also encourages the use of C. elegans as a skin model, and its high-throughput screening properties facilitate the acceleration of fundamental research in skin-related diseases.

The C. elegans Myc-family of transcription factors coordinate a dynamic adaptive response to dietary restriction

Dietary restriction (DR), the process of decreasing overall food consumption over an extended period of time, has been shown to increase longevity across evolutionarily diverse species and delay the onset of age-associated diseases in humans. In Caenorhabditis elegans, the Myc-family transcription factors (TFs) MXL-2 (Mlx) and MML-1 (MondoA/ChREBP), which function as obligate heterodimers, and PHA-4 (orthologous to FOXA) are both necessary for the full physiological benefits of DR. However, the adaptive transcriptional response to DR and the role of MML-1::MXL-2 and PHA-4 remains elusive. We identified the transcriptional signature of C. elegans DR, using the eat-2 genetic model, and demonstrate broad changes in metabolic gene expression in eat-2 DR animals, which requires both mxl-2 and pha-4. While the requirement for these factors in DR gene expression overlaps, we found many of the DR genes exhibit an opposing change in relative gene expression in eat-2;mxl-2 animals compared to wild-type, which was not observed in eat-2 animals with pha-4 loss. Surprisingly, we discovered more than 2000 genes synthetically dysregulated in eat-2;mxl-2, out of which the promoters of down-regulated genes were substantially enriched for PQM-1 and ELT-1/3 GATA TF binding motifs. We further show functional deficiencies of the mxl-2 loss in DR outside of lifespan, as eat-2;mxl-2 animals exhibit substantially smaller brood sizes and lay a proportion of dead eggs, indicating that MML-1::MXL-2 has a role in maintaining the balance between resource allocation to the soma and to reproduction under conditions of chronic food scarcity. While eat-2 animals do not show a significantly different metabolic rate compared to wild-type, we also find that loss of mxl-2 in DR does not affect the rate of oxygen consumption in young animals. The gene expression signature of eat-2 mutant animals is consistent with optimization of energy utilization and resource allocation, rather than induction of canonical gene expression changes associated with acute metabolic stress, such as induction of autophagy after TORC1 inhibition. Consistently, eat-2 animals are not substantially resistant to stress, providing further support to the idea that chronic DR may benefit healthspan and lifespan through efficient use of limited resources rather than broad upregulation of stress responses, and also indicates that MML-1::MXL-2 and PHA-4 may have distinct roles in promotion of benefits in response to different pro-longevity stimuli.

The MAB-5/Hox family transcription factor is important for Caenorhabditis elegans innate immune response to Staphylococcus epidermidis infection

Innate immunity functions as a rapid defense against broad classes of pathogenic agents. While the mechanisms of innate immunity in response to antigen exposure are well-studied, how pathogen exposure activates the innate immune responses and the role of genetic variation in immune activity is currently being investigated. Previously, we showed significant survival differences between the N2 and the CB4856 Caenorhabditis elegans isolates in response to Staphylococcus epidermidis infection. One of those differences was expression of the mab-5 Hox family transcription factor, which was induced in N2, but not CB4856, after infection. In this study, we use survival assays and RNA-sequencing to better understand the role of mab-5 in response to S. epidermidis. We found that mab-5 loss-of-function (LOF) mutants were more susceptible to S. epidermidis infection than N2 or mab-5 gain-of-function (GOF) mutants, but not as susceptible as CB4856 animals. We then conducted transcriptome analysis of infected worms and found considerable differences in gene expression profiles when comparing animals with mab-5 LOF to either N2 or mab-5 GOF. N2 and mab-5 GOF animals showed a significant enrichment in expression of immune genes and C-type lectins, whereas mab-5 LOF mutants did not. Overall, gene expression profiling in mab-5 mutants provided insight into MAB-5 regulation of the transcriptomic response of C. elegans to pathogenic bacteria and helps us to understand mechanisms of innate immune activation and the role that transcriptional regulation plays in organismal health.

The C. elegans Myc-family of transcription factors coordinate a dynamic adaptive response to dietary restriction

Dietary restriction (DR), the process of decreasing overall food consumption over an extended period of time, has been shown to increase longevity across evolutionarily diverse species and delay the onset of age-associated diseases in humans. In Caenorhabditis elegans, the Myc-family transcription factors (TFs) MXL-2 (Mlx) and MML-1 (MondoA/ChREBP), which function as obligate heterodimers, and PHA-4 (orthologous to forkhead box transcription factor A) are both necessary for the full physiological benefits of DR. However, the adaptive transcriptional response to DR and the role of MML-1::MXL-2 and PHA-4 remains elusive. We identified the transcriptional signature of C. elegans DR, using the eat-2 genetic model, and demonstrate broad changes in metabolic gene expression in eat-2 DR animals, which requires both mxl-2 and pha-4. While the requirement for these factors in DR gene expression overlaps, we found many of the DR genes exhibit an opposing change in relative gene expression in eat-2;mxl-2 animals compared to wild-type, which was not observed in eat-2 animals with pha-4 loss. We further show functional deficiencies of the mxl-2 loss in DR outside of lifespan, as eat-2;mxl-2 animals exhibit substantially smaller brood sizes and lay a proportion of dead eggs, indicating that MML-1::MXL-2 has a role in maintaining the balance between resource allocation to the soma and to reproduction under conditions of chronic food scarcity. While eat-2 animals do not show a significantly different metabolic rate compared to wild-type, we also find that loss of mxl-2 in DR does not affect the rate of oxygen consumption in young animals. The gene expression signature of eat-2 mutant animals is consistent with optimization of energy utilization and resource allocation, rather than induction of canonical gene expression changes associated with acute metabolic stress -such as induction of autophagy after TORC1 inhibition. Consistently, eat-2 animals are not substantially resistant to stress, providing further support to the idea that chronic DR may benefit healthspan and lifespan through efficient use of limited resources rather than broad upregulation of stress responses, and also indicates that MML-1::MXL-2 and PHA-4 may have different roles in promotion of benefits in response to different pro-longevity stimuli.

Evolutionary Change in Gut Specification in Caenorhabditis Centers on the GATA Factor ELT-3 in an Example of Developmental System Drift

Cells in a developing animal embryo become specified by the activation of cell-type-specific gene regulatory networks. The network that specifies the gut in the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans has been the subject of study for more than two decades. In this network, the maternal factors SKN-1/Nrf and POP-1/TCF activate a zygotic GATA factor cascade consisting of the regulators MED-1,2 → END-1,3 → ELT-2,7, leading to the specification of the gut in early embryos. Paradoxically, the MED, END, and ELT-7 regulators are present only in species closely related to C. elegans, raising the question of how the gut can be specified without them. Recent work found that ELT-3, a GATA factor without an endodermal role in C. elegans, acts in a simpler ELT-3 → ELT-2 network to specify gut in more distant species. The simpler ELT-3 → ELT-2 network may thus represent an ancestral pathway. In this review, we describe the elucidation of the gut specification network in C. elegans and related species and propose a model by which the more complex network might have formed. Because the evolution of this network occurred without a change in phenotype, it is an example of the phenomenon of Developmental System Drift.

The long isoform of the C. elegans ELT-3 GATA factor can specify endoderm when overexpressed

The C. elegans elt-3 gene encodes a GATA transcription factor that is expressed in the hypodermis and has roles in hypodermal specification and regulation of collagen and stress response genes. The gene encodes short and long isoforms, ELT-3A and ELT-3B respectively, that differ upstream of their DNA-binding domains. Previous work showed that ELT-3A can specify hypodermal cell fates when forcibly overexpressed throughout early embryos. We recently showed that the ELT-3B orthologue from the distantly related species C. angaria can specify endodermal fates when forcibly overexpressed in C. elegans. Here, we show that C. elegans ELT-3B can also specify endoderm.

The GATA factor ELT-3 specifies endoderm in Caenorhabditis angaria in an ancestral gene network

Endoderm specification in Caenorhabditis elegans occurs through a network in which maternally provided SKN-1/Nrf, with additional input from POP-1/TCF, activates the GATA factor cascade MED-1,2→END-1,3→ELT-2,7. Orthologues of the MED, END and ELT-7 factors are found only among nematodes closely related to C. elegans, raising the question of how gut is specified in their absence in more distant species in the genus. We find that the C. angaria, C. portoensis and C. monodelphis orthologues of the GATA factor gene elt-3 are expressed in the early E lineage, just before their elt-2 orthologues. In C. angaria, Can-pop-1(RNAi), Can-elt-3(RNAi) and a Can-elt-3 null mutation result in a penetrant ‘gutless’ phenotype. Can-pop-1 is necessary for Can-elt-3 activation, showing that it acts upstream. Forced early E lineage expression of Can-elt-3 in C. elegans can direct the expression of a Can-elt-2 transgene and rescue an elt-7 end-1 end-3; elt-2 quadruple mutant strain to viability. Our results demonstrate an ancestral mechanism for gut specification and differentiation in Caenorhabditis involving a simpler POP-1→ELT-3→ELT-2 gene network.

Wild-type Caenorhabditis elegans isolates exhibit distinct gene expression profiles in response to microbial infection

The soil-dwelling nematode Caenorhabditis elegans serves as a model system to study innate immunity against microbial pathogens. C. elegans have been collected from around the world, where they, presumably, adapted to regional microbial ecologies. Here we use survival assays and RNA-sequencing to better understand how two isolates from disparate climates respond to pathogenic bacteria. We found that, relative to N2 (originally isolated in Bristol, UK), CB4856 (isolated in Hawaii), was more susceptible to the Gram-positive microbe, Staphylococcus epidermidis, but equally susceptible to Staphylococcus aureus as well as two Gram-negative microbes, Providencia rettgeri and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. We performed transcriptome analysis of infected worms and found gene-expression profiles were considerably different in an isolate-specific and microbe-specific manner. We performed GO term analysis to categorize differential gene expression in response to S. epidermidis. In N2, genes that encoded detoxification enzymes and extracellular matrix proteins were significantly enriched, while in CB4856, genes that encoded detoxification enzymes, C-type lectins, and lipid metabolism proteins were enriched, suggesting they have different responses to S. epidermidis, despite being the same species. Overall, discerning gene expression signatures in an isolate by pathogen manner can help us to understand the different possibilities for the evolution of immune responses within organisms.

Transcriptomics and coexpression network profiling of the effects of levamisole hydrochloride on Bursaphelenchus xylophilus

Bursaphelenchus xylophilus is one of the most dangerous forest pathogens in the world, causing devastating pine forest deaths with considerable economic losses. In this study, we investigated the B. xylophilus RNA sequence responses of two different concentrations of levamisole hydrochloride (LH). We observed that body-wall muscle twitching, paralysis and, ultimately, death. 2.5 mg/ml and 3.5 mg/ml LH have toxicological effects on B. xylophilus, with mortality increasing significantly with concentration (p < 0.05). RNA sequencing, differential gene expression analysis, and cluster analysis were performed, and 336, 384, 6 genes with significant variance in expression were identified. Gene Ontology annotation and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes pathway analyses of the 12 intersecting genes revealed that these genes are mostly involved in metabolism of xenobiotics and have essential roles in drug sensitivity. Through the trend analysis of DEGs, it was divided into 8 modules, and the significant modules were selected to construct the co-expression network as the central genes of the drug metabolism-cytochrome P450 pathway (ko00982) and metabolism of xenobiotics by cytochrome P450 (ko00980). Eight highly related genes were identified, including cuticle collagen, cystathionine beta-synthase, endochitinase, pyruvate dehydrogenase E1 component subunit beta, aldehyde dehydrogenase, lipase, and zinc metalloproteinase. The expression levels of these genes were upregulated significantly at low concentrations and were significantly related to the resistance of B. xylophilus to LH. This study shows that B. xylophilus gene family expansions occurred in xenobiotic detoxification pathways through gene expression and potential horizontal correlated gene transfer with LH and helps to elucidate LH lethality and the evolutionary mechanisms underlying the adaptations of B. xylophilus to the environment. These results contributing to our understanding of B. xylophilus under LH and provide a data platform to providing a basis for its control.

Integrating transcriptomics and behavior tests reveals how the C. elegans responds to copper induced aging

Copper (Cu) pollution in water and agricultural soil has always been a worldwide concern. This research aims to investigate the health effects of copper exposure on Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans) under the existing environmental quality standards (1 mg/L and 2 mg/L) via lifespan, reproduction, biological markers and transcriptome analysis. The results showed that copper of these two environmental standards shorten the lifespan of nematodes, reduced the brood size, reduced the frequency of pharyngeal pumps and prolonged defecation time as aging-related behaviors, and increased the levels of aging-related markers ROS, MDA and H₂O₂. There was a certain effect trend for the two exposure concentrations. Further, the possible molecular mechanism of copper-induced aging and reproductive effects on C. elegans was explored. Differential gene expression analysis was performed, and 2332 genes (567 up- and 1765 down-regulated genes) in the 1 mg/L group, 2449 DEGs (724 up- and 1725 down-regulated genes) in the 2 mg/L group in response to copper treatment. The top 20 regulated genes were vit (vit-1, vit-3, vit-4) genes, col genes (col-35, col-72, col-114, col-123, col-164, col-183, col-185), eea-1, him-18 and grl-20, which suggested that cuticle collagen synthesis and yolk expression were disrupted by copper. Analysis of KEGG pathway showed copper exposure widely affects longevity regulation pathways, thereby promoting aging. In summary, the sequencing results extensively and deeply reveal the health hazards of environmentally relevant doses of copper exposure to C. elegans, and behavioral testing verified that copper promoted aging of C. elegans.

Weissella confusa CGMCC 19,308 Strain Protects Against Oxidative Stress, Increases Lifespan, and Bacterial Disease Resistance in Caenorhabditis elegans

The aim of this study was to investigate the antioxidant activity of Weissella confusa CGMCC 19,308 and its influence on longevity and host defense against Salmonella Typhimurium of Caenorhabditis elegans. The CFCS (cell-free culture supernatant) of W. confusa CGMCC 19,308 possessed DPPH radicals, hydroxyl radicals, and superoxide anion scavenging activity. The lifespan of the C. elegans fed W. confusa CGMCC 19,308 was significantly (p < 0.001) longer than that of worms fed Escherichia coli OP50. Moreover, worms fed W. confusa CGMCC 19,308 were more resistant to oxidative stress induced by hydrogen peroxide and S. Typhimurium infection. RNA-seq analysis showed that the most significantly differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in C. elegans fed with W. confusa CGMCC 19,308 were mainly col genes (col-43, col-2, col-40, col-155, col-37), glutathione-S-transferase (GST)-related genes (gst-44, gst-9, gst-17, gst-18, gstk-2), cnc-9 (immune-related gene), and sod-5 (superoxide dismutase). These results indicated that cuticle collagen synthesis, immunity, and antioxidant defense (AOD) system of C. elegans were affected after being fed with W. confusa CGMCC 19,308 instead of E. coli OP50. Our study suggested W. confusa CGMCC 19,308 had the antioxidant activity and could prolong lifespan and enhance the host defense against S. Typhimurium of C. elegans. This study provided new evidences for the W. confusa CGMCC 19,308 as a potential probiotic candidate for anti-aging and anti-bacterial infection.

Form and function of the apical extracellular matrix: new insights from Caenorhabditis elegans, Drosophila melanogaster, and the vertebrate inner ear

Apical extracellular matrices (aECMs) are the extracellular layers on the apical sides of epithelia. aECMs form the outer layer of the skin in most animals and line the luminal surface of internal tubular epithelia. Compared to the more conserved basal ECMs (basement membranes), aECMs are highly diverse between tissues and between organisms and have been more challenging to understand at mechanistic levels. Studies in several genetic model organisms are revealing new insights into aECM composition, biogenesis, and function and have begun to illuminate common principles and themes of aECM organization. There is emerging evidence that, in addition to mechanical or structural roles, aECMs can participate in reciprocal signaling with associated epithelia and other cell types. Studies are also revealing mechanisms underlying the intricate nanopatterns exhibited by many aECMs. In this review, we highlight recent findings from well-studied model systems, including the external cuticle and ductal aECMs of Caenorhabditis elegans, Drosophila melanogaster, and other insects and the internal aECMs of the vertebrate inner ear.

C. elegans Apical Extracellular Matrices Shape Epithelia

Apical extracellular matrices (aECMs) coat exposed surfaces of epithelia to shape developing tissues and protect them from environmental insults. Despite their widespread importance for human health, aECMs are poorly understood compared to basal and stromal ECMs. The nematode Caenorhabditis elegans contains a variety of distinct aECMs, some of which share many of the same types of components (lipids, lipoproteins, collagens, zona pellucida domain proteins, chondroitin glycosaminoglycans and proteoglycans) with mammalian aECMs. These aECMs include the eggshell, a glycocalyx-like pre-cuticle, both collagenous and chitin-based cuticles, and other understudied aECMs of internal epithelia. C. elegans allows rapid genetic manipulations and live imaging of fluorescently-tagged aECM components, and is therefore providing new insights into aECM structure, trafficking, assembly, and functions in tissue shaping.