Ocorrência de Acanthocephala em Leontopithecus (Lesson, 1840), cativos: aspectos clínico-patológicos. Callitrichidae-Primates

Parasites and Viruses in Callithrix in Brazil

PURPOSE

As a result of environmental imbalances of anthropogenic origin, the potential for transmission of parasites and viruses between different primates, including humans, might increase. Thus, parasitic studies have great relevance to primatology, which motivated us to conduct a literature review to synthesize the information available in American primates of the Callithrix genus.

METHODS

We carried out the bibliographic search on the main groups of parasites (protozoa, helminths, arthropods, ectoparasites) and viruses found in Callithrix in Brazil in search platforms and consider all manuscript that appeared in search engines, published between the years 1910 and December 2022. In each selected article, the following information was recorded: the host species; parasite taxa; scientific classification of the parasite; host habitat (free-living, captive); diagnostic technique; state; and bibliographic reference. Data were tabulated and arranged in a parasite-host table.

RESULTS

Some endemic genera, such as Callithrix, are widely distributed geographically across Brazil and have characteristics of adaptation to different habitats due to their flexibility in diet and behavior. These factors can make them subject to a greater diversity of parasites and viruses in the country. Here, we identified 68 parasitic taxa, belonging to the clades protozoa (n = 22), helminths (n = 34), ectoparasites (n = 7), and viruses (n = 5). Out of this total, 19 have zoonotic potential. Of the six existing marmoset species, Callithrix jacchus was the most frequent in studies, and Callithrix flaviceps did not have reports. All regions of the country had occurrences, mainly the Southeast, where 54% of the cases were reported. In 46% of the reported parasites and viruses, it was not possible to identify the corresponding species.

CONCLUSION

We conclude that in part of the works the identification methods are not being specific, which makes it difficult to identify the species that affects Callithrix spp. Furthermore, the studies present geographic disparities, being concentrated in the southeast of the country, making it impossible to have a more uniform analysis of the findings. Thus, it is observed that information about parasites and viruses is incipient in the genus Callithrix in Brazil.

MEDICAL-SURGICAL MANAGEMENT OF INTESTINAL INFECTION BY PROSTHENORCHIS ELEGANS IN NONHUMAN PRIMATES FROM COSTA RICA

Parasitism is one of the most important diseases in nonhuman primates (NHP). Parasitism by Prosthenorchis elegans can be a threat to health and conservation of NHP in Costa Rica. Surgical management of intestinal acanthocephalan infection in two squirrel monkeys (Saimiri oerstedii) and one white-faced monkey (Cebus imitator) is described as an alternative to the lack of pharmacologic control options when there is a high burden of parasites present. A complete physical evaluation, including medical ultrasound techniques, allow for diagnosis of the parasite and its lesions. When animals present with a high burden of parasites, surgical management has shown to promote good health outcomes and increase the probability of survival.

Cryptic diversity in a gastrointestinal acanthocephalan of New World primates from Costa Rica

Prosthenorchis elegans is a worm of the family Archiacanthocephala that infects non-human primates in the Americas, producing an intestinal pathology that may compromise the life of its hosts. Squirrel monkeys, Saimiri oerstedii citrinellus, were found with P. elegans in Costa Rica. Histopathological analysis revealed a severe pyogranulomatous response composed by macrophages, neutrophils, eosinophils, fibroblasts and lymphocytes. Morphological worm analyses revealed 36 hooks in the proboscis distributed in six rows; and total body, hook and lemnisci length were compatible to the original descriptions of P. elegans. In addition, phylogenetic, haplotype network and genetic distance analyses were done on cytochrome oxidase subunit 1, cox1, sequences obtained from the collected specimens. Sequences obtained herein clustered separately with high posterior probabilities in a Bayesian Inference tree and showed 8.12% nucleotide differences when compared to P. elegans from Colombia. This high divergence was confirmed in the TCS network that separated Colombian and Costa Rican sequences by 32 mutational steps, a genetic distance PCA which separated sequences from both geographical locations by 89.5% and an F_ST value of 0.655, indicating the presence of cryptic diversity in P. elegans. Additional studies from specimens collected from other definitive hosts and geographical locations are required to better understand the biodiversity of this species.

Relationships between food shortages, endoparasite loads and health status of golden-headed lion tamarins (Leontopithecus chrysomelas)

Abstract Both anthropogenic actions and abiotic parameters, such as rainfall, temperature and photoperiod, can affect fruit and flower availability for animals, which consequently affects nutritional status and thus animals’ health. Herein, we investigated whether abiotic factors are related to changes in fruit availability that can lead to changes in feeding behavior and, consequently, in endoparasite load and general health status in two groups of golden-headed lion tamarins (Leontopithecus chrysomelas) living in degraded fragments of Atlantic forest in Southern Bahia, Brazil. We detected that there was a high variation in availability of ripe fruits throughout the year, with lower availability occurring at the end of spring and beginning of summer. Despite this, there was no difference in tamarins’ general health status, body mass and blood counts between seasons. This is probably because during native fruit scarcity, the tamarins eat cultivated species, such as banana (Musa spp.) and jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus). Temperature and daylength were negatively correlated with golden-headed lion tamarin endoparasite loads. Contrary to our expectations, endoparasite loads are not linked to fruit scarcity and consequent changes in feeding behavior. Nevertheless, we found higher parasite diversity in the group of golden-headed lion tamarins that occupied the smallest home range. The smaller the area available, the greater the contact with parasites the animal will have, as they are forced to travel constantly along the same routes in the forest, increasing infection risk and re-infection rates. Our results highlight how animals’ health is associated with environmental health as well as the need for constant monitoring to ensure the effective conservation of endangered species, such as the golden-headed lion tamarin.

Gastrointestinal parasites of Leontopithecus chrysomelas in the Atlantic Forest, Brazil

We performed coproparasitological testing of free-living golden-headed lion tamarins, Leontopithecus chrysomelas, using the Hoffmann-Pons-Janner method. In total, we collected 118 samples from ten groups: four living in Federal Protected Area and six living in Non-Protected Areas of cocoa farms. Eggs from parasites of the Acanthocephala phylum and Spiruridae, Ancylostomatidae, Ascarididae and Oxyuridae families were identified, as well as the genus Strongyloides (Nematode: Strongyloididae) and phylum Apicomplexa. This is the first description of infection with coccidian, Trichuridae family and Strongyloides spp. in L. chrysomelas. A total of 48% (n= 57) of the animals were infected and the highest prevalence (37.2±SD 8.72, n = 44) was for Acanthocephalidae, followed by Spiruridae (8.5±SD 5.03, n = 10). There was no difference in parasite prevalence by age classes or sex. However, we found higher diversity and prevalence of parasites in animals living in the Federal Protected Area. These results suggest that intestinal parasites may be influenced by environmental factors, such as the management of the areas where the animals live, in addition to the feeding behavior of L. chrysomelas and distinct transmission strategies of parasites. The combination of ecological and demographic data combined with parasitological studies may contribute to conservation programs for this species.

Epidemiological, clinical and pathological aspects of lethal acanthocephalosis in captive neotropical primates

BACKGROUND

Acanthocephalosis is an important cause of death in captive New World primates (NWP). Once established in a colony, it is extremely difficult to treat and control, quickly spreading among NWP with a high mortality rate. This study aimed to characterize the disease associated with infection with acanthocephalans according to its epidemiological, clinical, and anatomopathological aspects in a captive NWP population.

METHODS

From 2010 to 2020, a Brazilian zoo had recurrent deaths of NWP associated to acanthocephalan parasitism. Clinical and pathological profiles of these animals were analyzed considering the host species, sex, age, weight, clinical signs, therapeutic protocols, and pathological findings.

RESULTS

A total of 27 deaths associated with acanthocephalosis were recorded, all lethal cases affected tamarins and lion tamarins, corresponding to 67.5% of total deaths during the course of this study. Ten animals died with no previously detected clinical signs, whereas cases with noticeable clinical signs often had apathy and progressive weight loss, resulting in cachexia. Symptomatic NWP were treated with anthelmintic protocols, antibiotics, and support therapy. However, all hospitalized animals died and had grossly detectable adult acanthocephalans in the intestinal lumen that were identified as Prosthenorchis sp., which were associated with transmural and ulcerative enteritis.

CONCLUSIONS

This report revealed the impact of acanthocephalosis in a naturally infected captive colony of NWP, particularly affecting tamarins (Saguinus spp.) and lion tamarins (Leontopithecus spp.), with failed treatment and control strategies.

Gastrointestinal parasites in captive and free-ranging Cebus albifrons in the Western Amazon, Ecuador

Currently, there is a lack of surveys that report the occurrence of gastrointestinal parasites in the white-headed capuchin monkey (Cebus albifrons). We therefore assessed the presence and richness (= number of different parasite genera) of parasites in C. albifrons in wildlife refuges (n = 11) and in a free-ranging group near a human village (n = 15) in the Ecuadorian Amazon. In the 78 samples collected (median of 3 samples per animal), we identified a total of 6 genera of gastrointestinal parasites, representing protozoa, nematodes, acanthocephalans and cestodes. We observed a high prevalence (84%) across the 26 individuals, with the most prevalent parasite being Strongyloides sp. (76.9%), followed by Hymenolepis sp. (38.5%) and Prosthenorchis elegans (11.5%). We found Entamoeba histolytica/dispar/moskovskii/nuttalli and Capillaria sp. in only a minority of the animals (3.8%). In addition, we observed unidentified strongyles in approximately one-third of the animals (34.6%). We found a total of 6 parasite genera for the adult age group, which showed higher parasite richness than the subadult age group (5) and the juvenile age group (3). Faecal egg/cyst counts were not significantly different between captive and free-ranging individuals or between sexes or age groups. The free-ranging group had a higher prevalence than the captive group; however, this difference was not significant. The only genus common to captive and free-ranging individuals was Strongyloides sp. The high prevalence of gastrointestinal parasites and the presence of Strongyloides in both populations support results from previous studies in Cebus species. This high prevalence could be related to the high degree of humidity in the region. For the free-ranging group, additional studies are required to gain insights into the differences in parasite prevalence and intensity between age and sex groups. Additionally, our study demonstrated that a serial sampling of each individual increases the test sensitivity.

Occurrence of Prosthenorchis elegans in Free-living Primates from the Atlantic Forest of Southern Bahia, Brazil

Parasite prevalence and abundance are important factors affecting species' conservation. During necropsies on a free-living golden-headed lion tamarin ( Leontopithecus chrysomelas ) and two Wied's marmosets ( Callithrix kuhlii ) in the Atlantic Forest of southern Bahia, Brazil, we collected a large number of adult intestinal parasites that we identified as Prosthenorchis elegans. This parasite is pathogenic for neotropical primates. Prosthenorchis spp. infestation is influenced by diet with increased risk of exposure from ingesting invertebrate intermediate hosts. The biological similarities and sympatric nature of these two nonhuman primates support that they may harbor similar infectious and parasitic agents.

Mitochondrial DNA diversity in the acanthocephalan Prosthenorchis elegans in Colombia based on cytochrome c oxidase I (COI) gene sequence

Prosthenorchis elegans is a member of the Phylum Acanthocephala and is an important parasite affecting New World Primates in the wild in South America and in captivity around the world. It is of significant management concern due to its pathogenicity and mode of transmission through intermediate hosts. Current diagnosis of P. elegans is based on the detection of eggs by coprological examination. However, this technique lacks both specificity and sensitivity, since eggs of most members of the genus are morphologically indistinguishable and shed intermittently, making differential diagnosis difficult, and coprological examinations are often negative in animals severely infected at death. We examined sequence variation in 633 bp of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) cytochrome c oxidase I (COI) sequence in 37 isolates of P. elegans from New World monkeys (Saguinus leucopus and Cebus albifrons) in Colombia held in rescue centers and from the wild. Intraspecific divergence ranged from 0.0 to 1.6% and was comparable with corresponding values within other species of acanthocephalans. Furthermore, comparisons of patterns of sequence divergence within the Acanthocephala suggest that Prosthenorchis represents a separate genus within the Oligacanthorhynchida. Six distinct haplotypes were identified within P. elegans which grouped into one of two well-supported mtDNA haplogroups. No association between haplogroup/haplotype, holding facility and species was found. This information will help pave the way to the development of molecular-based diagnostic tools for the detection of P. elegans as well as furthering research into the life cycle, intermediate hosts and epidemiological aspects of the species.

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First report of mitochondrial DNA sequence in Prosthenorchis sp.

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Surprising genetic diversity in Prosthenorchis elegans.

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Six different haplotypes detected within Prosthenorchis elegans which grouped into one of two well-supported mtDNA lineages.