Perinatal mortality in three population-based cohorts from Southern Brazil: trends and differences

Contextual, maternal, and infant factors in preventable infant deaths: a statewide ecological and cross-sectional study in Rio Grande do SUL, Brazil

BACKGROUND

Ending preventable deaths of newborns and children under five by 2030 is among the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals. This study aimed to describe infant mortality rate due to preventable causes in Rio Grande do Sul (RS), the Southernmost state in Brazil. With 11,329,605 inhabitants and 141,568 live births in 2017, RS was the fifth most populous state in the country.

METHOD

An ecological and cross-sectional statewide study, with data extracted from records of the Mortality Information System, Death Certificates, and Live Birth Certificates for the year 2017. Preventability was estimated by applying the List of Causes of Deaths Preventable through Intervention of SUS (acronym for Sistema Unico de Saude - Brazilian Unified Health System) Intervention. Rates of preventable infant mortality (PIMR), preventable early neonatal mortality (PENMR), preventable late neonatal mortality (PLNMR), and preventable post-neonatal mortality (PPNMR) per 1000 live births (LB) were quantified. Incidence ratios, according to contextual characteristics (human development index of the health region and of the municipality; Gini index of the municipality), maternal characteristics at the time of delivery (age, education, self-reported skin color, presence of a partner, number of antenatal care consultations, and type of delivery), and characteristics of the child at the time of birth (gestational age, weight, and pregnancy type) were calculated.

RESULTS

In 2017, there were 141,568 live births and 1425 deaths of infants younger than 1 year old, of which 1119 were preventable (PIMR = 7.9:1000 LB). The PENMR, PLNMR, and PPNMR were 4.1:1000 LB; 1.5:1000 LB; and 2.3:1000 LB, respectively. More than 60% of deaths in the first week and 57.5% in the late neonatal period could be reduced through adequate care of the woman during pregnancy. The most frequent preventable neonatal causes were related to prematurity, mainly acute respiratory syndrome, and non-specified bacterial septicemia. In the post-neonatal period, 31.8% of deaths could be prevented through adequate diagnostic and treatment.

CONCLUSIONS

The strategies needed to reduce preventable infant deaths should preferably focus on preventing prematurity, through adequate care of the woman during pregnancy.

Prevalence, mortality and risk factors associated with very low birth weight preterm infants: an analysis of 33 years

OBJECTIVE

To assess the prevalence, mortality and risk factors associated with the birth of very low birth weight preterm infants over a period of 33 years.

METHODS

Four cross-sectional studies were analyzed, using data from perinatal interviews of birth cohorts in the city of Pelotas collected in 1982, 1993, 2004, and 2015. Based on perinatal questionnaires, anthropometric measurements of newborns and death certificates were analyzed to obtain the prevalence rate, neonatal mortality, and risk factors (maternal age, income and type of delivery) for very low birth weight.

RESULTS

A total of 19,625 newborns were included in the study. In the years 1982, 1993, 2004, and 2015, there were, respectively, 5909, 5232, 4226, and 4258 births. The prevalence of very low birth weight was, respectively, 1.1% (n=64), 0.9% (n=46), 1.4% (n=61), and 1.3% (n=54). There was no statistical evidence of an increasing trend over time (p=0.11). Among the risk factors, family income in the three poorest quintiles was associated with prevalence rates that were approximately twice as high as in the richest quintile (p=0.003). Mortality per 1000 live births for neonates weighing <1500g decreased from 688 to 259 per thousand from 1982 to 2015 (p<0.001), but still represented 61% of neonatal deaths in the latter year.

CONCLUSION

Although mortality in very low birth weight decreased by more than 60% in recent years, this group still contributes with more than half of neonatal deaths. Low family income remains an important risk factor in this scenario.

Changes in Infant and Neonatal Mortality and Associated Factors in Eight Cohorts from Three Brazilian Cities

Stillbirth (SBR), perinatal (PMR), neonatal (NMR) and infant mortality rates (IMR) are declining in Brazil and the factors associated with these falls are still being investigated. The objective of the present study was to assess changes in SBR, PMR, NMR and IMR over time and to determine the factors associated with changes in NMR and IMR in eight Brazilian cohorts. All cohorts are population-based (Ribeirão Preto in 1978/79, 1994 and 2010; Pelotas in 1982, 1993 and 2004; and São Luís in 1997/98 and 2010). Were included data on 41440 children. All indicators were decreased, except in the city of Pelotas, from 1993 to 2004, and except SBR in São Luís. Sociodemographic variables seem to be able to explain reductions of NMR and IMR in Ribeirão Preto, from 1978/79 to 1994, and in São Luís. In Ribeirão Preto, from 1994 to 2010 declines in NMR and IMR seem to be explained by reductions in intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR). Newborn’s gestational age had diminished in all cohorts, preventing even greater reductions of NMR and IMR. Improved sociodemographic variables and reduction of IUGR, seem to be able to explain part of the decrease observed. NMR and IMR could have been reduced even more, were it not for the worsening in gestational age distribution.

Associação da posição socioeconômica e da depressão materna com a saúde das crianças: avaliação da PNAD 2008, Brasil

Resumo O estudo analisou a associação entre posição socioeconômica (renda), depressão materna e saúde da criança no Brasil, utilizando informações da Pesquisa Nacional por Amostra de Domicílios 2008 (PNAD/IBGE). A análise considerou o delineamento amostral da pesquisa e incluiu 46.874 indivíduos com idade até 9 anos. Modelos Poisson foram estimados para três desfechos de saúde da criança: saúde reportada pelos pais ou responsáveis, restrição das atividades habituais por motivo de saúde e episódios de acamamento nas duas semanas anteriores à entrevista. Os resultados apontaram associação entre a depressão da mãe e os três desfechos, mesmo após o ajuste para posição socioeconômica, características maternas (saúde autorreferida, idade, escolaridade e tabagismo), idade, sexo e cor da pele da criança, além de região geográfica, situação censitária e número de moradores do domicílio. Constatou-se ainda que a associação entre depressão materna e saúde da criança independe da posição socioeconômica. Assim, políticas de saúde pública que objetivem atenuar os efeitos adversos da depressão materna sobre a saúde da criança, precisam considerar também os estratos mais elevados de renda da sociedade.

Mortality from Circulatory System Diseases and Malformations in Children in the State of Rio de Janeiro

Background

The epidemiological profile of mortality in a population is important for the institution of measures to improve health care and reduce mortality

Objective

To estimate mortality rates and the proportional mortality from cardiovascular diseases and malformations of the circulatory system in children and adolescents.

Methods

This is a descriptive study of mortality from cardiovascular diseases, malformations of the circulatory system, from all causes, ill-defined causes and external causes in children and adolescents in the state of Rio de Janeiro from 1996 to 2012. Populations were obtained from the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística - IBGE) and deaths obtained from the Department of Informatics of the Unified Health System (DATASUS)/Ministry of Health.

Results

There were 115,728 deaths from all causes, 69,757 in males. The annual mortality from cardiovascular diseases was 2.7/100,000 in men and 2.6/100,000 in women. The annual mortality from malformations of the circulatory system was 7.5/100,000 in men and 6.6/100,000 in women. Among the specific causes of circulatory diseases, cardiomyopathies had the highest rates of annual proportional mortality, and from malformations of the circulatory system, it occurred due to unspecified malformations of the circulatory system, at all ages and in both genders.

Conclusion

Mortality from malformations of the circulatory system was most striking in the first years of life, while cardiovascular diseases were more relevant in adolescents. Low access to prenatal diagnosis or at birth probably prevented the proper treatment of malformations of the circulatory system.

Infant mortality in Novo Hamburgo: associated factors and cardiovascular causes

Background

Infant mortality has decreased in Brazil, but remains high as compared to that of other developing countries. In 2010, the Rio Grande do Sul state had the lowest infant mortality rate in Brazil. However, the municipality of Novo Hamburgo had the highest infant mortality rate in the Porto Alegre metropolitan region.

Objective

To describe the causes of infant mortality in the municipality of Novo Hamburgo from 2007 to 2010, identifying which causes were related to heart diseases and if they were diagnosed in the prenatal period, and to assess the access to healthcare services.

Methods

This study assessed infants of the municipality of Novo Hamburgo, who died, and whose data were collected from the infant death investigation records.

Results

Of the 157 deaths in that period, 35.3% were reducible through diagnosis and early treatment, 25% were reducible through partnership with other sectors, 19.2% were non-preventable, 11.5% were reducible by means of appropriate pregnancy monitoring, 5.1% were reducible through appropriate delivery care, and 3.8% were ill defined. The major cause of death related to heart disease (13.4%), which was significantly associated with the variables ‘age at death’, ‘gestational age’ and ‘birth weight’. Regarding access to healthcare services, 60.9% of the pregnant women had a maximum of six prenatal visits.

Conclusion

It is mandatory to enhance prenatal care and newborn care at hospitals and basic healthcare units to prevent infant mortality.

Fetal deaths in Brazil: a systematic review

OBJECTIVE

To review the frequency of and factors associated with fetal death in the Brazilian scientific literature.

METHODS

A systematic review of Brazilian studies on fetal deaths published between 2003 and 2013 was conducted. In total, 27 studies were analyzed; of these, 4 studies addressed the quality of data, 12 were descriptive studies, and 11 studies evaluated the factors associated with fetal death. The databases searched were PubMed and Lilacs, and data extraction and synthesis were independently performed by two or more examiners.

RESULTS

The level of completeness of fetal death certificates was deficient, both in the completion of variables, particularly sociodemographic variables, and in defining the underlying causes of death. Fetal deaths have decreased in Brazil; however, inequalities persist. Analysis of the causes of death indicated maternal morbidities that could be prevented and treated. The main factors associated with fetal deaths were absent or inadequate prenatal care, low education level, maternal morbidity, and adverse reproductive history.

CONCLUSIONS

Prenatal care should prioritize women that are most vulnerable (considering their social environment or their reproductive history and morbidities) with the aim of decreasing the fetal mortality rate in Brazil. Adequate completion of death certificates and investment in the committees that investigate fetal and infant deaths are necessary.

[Perinatal mortality in the municipality of Salvador, Northeastern Brazil: evolution from 2000 to 2009]

OBJECTIVE

To describe and analyze the evolution of perinatal mortality with regards the scale and extent of the problem.

METHODS

A descriptive time trend study with 10,994 perinatal deaths to mothers living in Salvador, Bahia, Northeastern Brazil, with a gestational age of ≥ 22 weeks, newborn age of up to six days and birth weight of 500 grams or more, recorded from 2000 to 2009. Data from the Information Systems on Live Births and Mortality of DATASUS/Ministry of Health available on the website were used. Rates of perinatal and fetal mortality per 1,000 births and early neonatal mortality per 1,000 live births were calculated. The Pearson's Qui-square test for differences in proportions, sequence (runs) test, the calculation of moving averages and linear coefficient of determination (R²) were used for trend analysis. The Wigglesworth classification of causes of death was used.

RESULTS

The rates of perinatal mortality showed a decreasing trend, of -42.0% in the period (from 33.1 (2000) to 19.2 (2009)), with a greater share of rates of neonatal mortality (-56.3%). Fetal mortality accounted for a large proportion (61.9%) of rates of perinatal mortality in 2009. The classification of deaths showed the following most frequent causes of perinatal deaths: intrapartum asphyxia (8.8/1,000), immaturity (7.1/1,000) and congenital malformations (1.3/1,000).

CONCLUSIONS

Perinatal mortality remains high despite the downward trend, and the predominance of fetal mortality indicates recent changes in the profile of causes of death and impact on prevention activities. The quality of prenatal care with risk control and improving care during the delivery may reduce the occurrence of preventable causes of death.

When is birthweight at term abnormally low? A systematic review and meta-analysis of the association and predictive ability of current birthweight standards for neonatal outcomes

Background

Intrauterine growth restriction is a cause of neonatal morbidity and mortality. A variety of definitions of low birthweight are used in clinical practice, with a lack of consensus regarding which definitions best predict adverse outcomes.

Objectives

To evaluate the relationship between birthweight standards and neonatal outcome in term-born infants (at ≥ 37 weeks of gestation).

Search strategy

MEDLINE (1966–January 2011), EMBASE (1980–January 2011), and the Cochrane Library (2011:1) and MEDION were included in our search.

Selection criteria

Studies comprising live term-born infants (gestation ≥ 37 completed weeks), with weight or other anthropometric measurements recorded at birth along with neonatal outcomes.

Data collection and analysis

Data were extracted to populate 2 × 2 tables relating birthweight standard with outcome, and meta-analysis was performed where possible.

Main results

Twenty-nine studies including 21 034 114 neonates were selected. Absolute birthweight was strongly associated with mortality, with birthweight < 1.5 kg giving the largest association (OR 48.6, 95% CI 28.62–82.53). When using centile charts, regardless of threshold, the summary odds ratios were significant but closer to 1 than when using absolute birthweight. For all tests, summary predictive ability comprised high specificity and positive likelihood ratio for neonatal death, but low sensitivity and a negative likelihood ratio close to 1.

Author's conclusions

Absolute birthweight is a prognostic factor for neonatal mortality. The indirect evidence suggests that centile charts or other definitions of low birthweight are not as strongly associated with mortality as the absolute birthweight. Further research is required to improve predictive accuracy.

The changing pattern of perinatal mortality and causes of death in central Anatolian region of Turkey

In this study, the perinatal mortality is presented in 2009 compared to 1998. Changing patterns of the perinatal mortality rate (PNMR), the stillbirth rate (SBR), early neonatal mortality rate (ENMR) and the causes of the perinatal mortality in Zekai Tahir Burak Women's Health Education and Research Hospital (ZTBH) were described. This is the largest maternity hospital of Ankara in the central Anatolian region of Turkey. The total deliveries were 22,777 and 18,567 in 1998 and 2009, respectively. PNMR was 27.7 per 1000, and SBR was 23.7 per 1000 total births. ENMR was 4 per 1000 in 1998. PNMR is 20.7 per 1000, and SBR was 16.3 per 1000 and ENMR was 4.6 per 1000 total births in 2009. It is important to know the causes of mortality. In this study, the causes of perinatal deaths were classified according to the Wigglesworth classification. Antepartum stillbirth (62.3%) was the most frequent cause in 1998. Perinatal asphyxia is the majority (46.6%) of the perinatal deaths in 2009. This study shows that even prenatal care is getting better, obstetric care as well as close follow-up throughout the intrapartum period and diminishing the preterm delivery rate is also important for preventing and reducing perinatal mortality.

Childbearing during adolescence and offspring mortality: findings from three population-based cohorts in southern Brazil

Background

The role of young maternal age as a determinant of adverse child health outcomes is controversial, with existing studies providing conflicting results. This work assessed the association between adolescent childbearing and early offspring mortality in three birth cohort studies from the city of Pelotas in Southern Brazil.

Methods

All hospital births from 1982 (6,011), 1993 (5,304), and 2004 (4,287) were identified and these infants were followed up. Deaths were monitored through vital registration, visits to hospitals and cemeteries. The analyses were restricted to women younger than 30 years who delivered singletons (72%, 70% and 67% of the original cohorts, respectively). Maternal age was categorized into three groups (< 16, 16-19, and 20-29 years). Further analyses compared mothers aged 12-19 and 20-29 years. The outcome variables included fetal, perinatal, neonatal, postneonatal and infant mortality. Crude and adjusted odds ratios (ORs) were estimated with logistic regression models.

Results

There were no interactions between maternal age and cohort year. After adjustment for confounding, pooled ORs for mothers aged 12-19 years were 0.6 (95% CI = 0.4; 1.0) for fetal death, 0.9 (0.6; 1.3) for perinatal death, 1.0 (0.7; 1.6) for early neonatal death, 1.6 (0.7; 3.4) for late neonatal death, 1.8 (1.1; 2.9) for postneonatal death, and 1.6 (1.2; 2.1) for infant death, when compared to mothers aged 20-29 years. Further adjustment for mediating variables led to the disappearance of the excess of postneonatal mortality. The number of mothers younger than 16 years was not sufficient for most analyses.

Conclusion

The slightly increased odds of postneonatal mortality among children of adolescent mothers suggest that social and environmental factors may be more important than maternal biologic immaturity.

Maternal and child health in Brazil: progress and challenges

In the past three decades, Brazil has undergone rapid changes in major social determinants of health and in the organisation of health services. In this report, we examine how these changes have affected indicators of maternal health, child health, and child nutrition. We use data from vital statistics, population censuses, demographic and health surveys, and published reports. In the past three decades, infant mortality rates have reduced substantially, decreasing by 5·5% a year in the 1980s and 1990s, and by 4·4% a year since 2000 to reach 20 deaths per 1000 livebirths in 2008. Neonatal deaths account for 68% of infant deaths. Stunting prevalence among children younger than 5 years decreased from 37% in 1974-75 to 7% in 2006-07. Regional differences in stunting and child mortality also decreased. Access to most maternal-health and child-health interventions increased sharply to almost universal coverage, and regional and socioeconomic inequalities in access to such interventions were notably reduced. The median duration of breastfeeding increased from 2·5 months in the 1970s to 14 months by 2006-07. Official statistics show stable maternal mortality ratios during the past 10 years, but modelled data indicate a yearly decrease of 4%, a trend which might not have been noticeable in official reports because of improvements in death registration and the increased number of investigations into deaths of women of reproductive age. The reasons behind Brazil's progress include: socioeconomic and demographic changes (economic growth, reduction in income disparities between the poorest and wealthiest populations, urbanisation, improved education of women, and decreased fertility rates), interventions outside the health sector (a conditional cash transfer programme and improvements in water and sanitation), vertical health programmes in the 1980s (promotion of breastfeeding, oral rehydration, and immunisations), creation of a tax-funded national health service in 1988 (coverage of which expanded to reach the poorest areas of the country through the Family Health Program in the mid-1990s); and implementation of many national and state-wide programmes to improve child health and child nutrition and, to a lesser extent, to promote women's health. Nevertheless, substantial challenges remain, including overmedicalisation of childbirth (nearly 50% of babies are delivered by caesarean section), maternal deaths caused by illegal abortions, and a high frequency of preterm deliveries.

Óbitos evitáveis até 48 meses de idade entre as crianças da Coorte de Nascimentos de Pelotas de 2004

OBJETIVO: Descrever óbitos evitáveis de crianças pertencentes à Coorte de Pelotas, RS, de 2004. MÉTODOS: O óbito de 92 crianças entre 2004-2008 da Coorte de Pelotas 2004 foi identificado e classificado conforme a Lista de Causas de Mortes Evitáveis por Intervenções do Sistema Único de Saúde. Os Sistemas de Informação sobre Mortalidade (SIM) municipal e estadual foram rastreados para localizar mortes ocorridas fora de Pelotas e as causas após o primeiro ano vida. O óbito de menores de um ano foi avaliado e comparado entre um subestudo e o SIM. Foram calculados coeficientes de mortalidade: 1.000 nascidos vivos (NV), mortalidade proporcional por causas evitáveis e conforme tipo de unidade básica de saúde (tradicional ou Estratégia Saúde da Família). RESULTADOS: O coeficiente de mortalidade foi de 22,2:1.000 NV, 82 óbitos ocorreram no primeiro ano de vida (19,4:1.000 NV), dos quais 37 (45%) na primeira semana. Mais de ¾ dos óbitos (70/92) eram evitáveis. No primeiro ano de vida, a maioria (42/82) das mortes seriam evitadas pela adequada atenção à mulher durante a gestação; de acordo com o SIM, a maioria (n = 32/82), pela adequada atenção ao recém-nascido. Não houve diferença entre o tipo de Unidade Básica de Saúde quanto à proporção de óbitos evitáveis. CONCLUSÕES: É alta a proporção de óbitos infantis que podem ser evitados. Para que os óbitos evitáveis possam ser utilizados como indicadores no monitoramento da qualidade da atenção à saúde materno-infantil, é necessário aprimorar a qualidade dos os registros das Declarações de Óbito.

Maternal-child health in Pelotas, Rio Grande do Sul State, Brazil: major conclusions from comparisons of the 1982, 1993, and 2004 birth cohorts

Important changes were observed in maternal characteristics, health care indicators, and child health during the 22 years covered by the three population-based birth cohort studies conducted in the city of Pelotas, Southern Brazil. Maternal education levels improved, cigarette smoking during pregnancy was reduced, and birth intervals became longer. Also, there were more single mothers, and maternal obesity increased. Coverage of antenatal and delivery care by professionals improved, but inductions and caesarean sections increased markedly, the latter accounting for 45% of deliveries in 2004. With regard to child health, the reductions in neonatal and infant mortality rates were modest, and the significant increase in preterm births--14.7% of all births in 2004--appears to have colluded with this stagnation. Other infant health indicators, such as immunization coverage and breastfeeding duration, showed improvements over the period. Regarding infant nutrition, malnourishment at age 12 months decreased, but the prevalence of overweight was higher in 2004. The existence of three population-based birth cohorts using comparable methodology allowed for the study of important secular trends in maternal and child health.

Mothers and their pregnancies: a comparison of three population-based cohorts in Southern Brazil

Mothers from the 1982, 1993 and 2004 Pelotas birth cohorts were compared across biological, socioeconomic, demographic and reproductive characteristics. Women in the 2004 cohort had higher levels of education, gained more weight during pregnancy, and were heavier at the beginning and end of their pregnancy than mothers who gave birth in 1993 and 1982. There was an important increase in obesity rates (body mass index > 30kg/m²) over the 22 years of the study. Mean parity decreased from 1.3 in 1982 to 1.1 in 2004, with a growing proportion of primiparas and a decline in the proportion of women with > 4 children. The mean birth interval increased from 33.5 months in 1982 to 65.7 in 2004. Smoking during pregnancy decreased from 35.6% in 1982 to 25.1% in 2004. As with other characteristics, the change in smoking status differed according to income, with higher reductions among the wealthiest (from 24.9% to 8.7%) than among the poorest mothers (from 43.7% to 33.6%). In general terms, between 1993 and 2004 there was a decrease in the prevalence of maternal risk factors for unfavorable perinatal outcomes.