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Ings K, Denk D. Avian Malaria in Penguins: Diagnostics and Future Direction in the Context of Climate Change. Animals (Basel) 2022; 12:ani12050600. [PMID: 35268169 PMCID: PMC8909384 DOI: 10.3390/ani12050600] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2022] [Revised: 02/21/2022] [Accepted: 02/23/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Avian malaria is caused by infection with protozoa of the genus Plasmodium. This vector-borne parasite is spread by mosquitoes and has a variable significance depending on environmental, host, mosquito and parasite factors. Captive penguins in non-native environments are exposed to the protozoa without having coevolved with them and are especially sensitive to infection. The most common presentation of the disease in affected penguins is acute death. Infection of wild penguins is reported and a greater understanding of the significance of such infections is required. Global warming and related surges in vector availability present an increasing threat to conservation in captive environments and targeted research into the early diagnosis of disease is required. Current diagnostic methods predominantly rely upon direct microscopy and/or molecular testing on tissues obtained from penguin postmortem examinations, and frequently fail to identify the causative agent at a species level. There are several barriers to the development of a rapid method to detect infection and the causative species; however, this information would further our understanding of this disease, and development of such a method is a valuable undertaking. This paper provides a summary of current diagnostic methods, identifies the likely future impacts of avian malaria in penguins, and highlights the need to improve both the speed and scope of available diagnostics. Abstract Avian malaria is caused by infection with haemoprotozoa of the genus Plasmodium. Infection is endemic in large parts of the world and is typically subclinical in birds that are native to these regions. Several penguin species have evolved in non-endemic regions without the selective pressure that these parasites exert and are highly susceptible to infection when transplanted to endemic regions, for example, in the context of zoological collections or rehabilitation centers. Avian malaria in penguins typically causes acute mortality without premonitory signs, or less commonly, nonspecific signs of morbidity, followed by mortality. Additionally, infection is reported in wild penguins, though the significance of these infections remains equivocal. As global temperatures continue to increase, avian malaria is likely to pose a continued and further threat to conservation efforts in captive environments. Intra vitam diagnosis currently relies on the evaluation of blood smears and molecular methods. The former is unreliable in penguins, as the acute clinical course typically does not allow the development of parasitemia. This absence of parasitemia also makes speciation challenging. Current molecular methods typically target the Cytochrome B or 18s subunit and have proven variably sensitive and specific. Reliable intra vitam diagnosis of avian malaria and further information about the causative agents at a species level would be very valuable in understanding the epidemiology and likely future course of avian malaria infection in penguins, and in particular, the implications avian malaria may have for conservation efforts. This paper provides an overview of malaria in penguins, discusses its changing impact on management and conservation, offers a summary of current diagnostics, and suggests future direction for the development of diagnostic tests. The latter will be key in understanding and managing this disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kate Ings
- Garscube Campus, School of Veterinary Medicine, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Bearsden Road, Glasgow G61 1QH, UK;
| | - Daniela Denk
- Institute of Veterinary Pathology, Centre for Clinical Veterinary Medicine, Ludwig-Maximilians-University, 80539 Munich, Germany
- Correspondence: or
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Pagheh AS, Sarvi S, Sharif M, Rezaei F, Ahmadpour E, Dodangeh S, Omidian Z, Hassannia H, Mehrzadi S, Daryani A. Toxoplasma gondii surface antigen 1 (SAG1) as a potential candidate to develop vaccine against toxoplasmosis: A systematic review. Comp Immunol Microbiol Infect Dis 2020; 69:101414. [PMID: 31958746 DOI: 10.1016/j.cimid.2020.101414] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2019] [Revised: 12/30/2019] [Accepted: 12/31/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii is an intracellular parasite that infects a broad range of animal species and humans. As the main surface antigen of the tachyzoite, SAG1 is involved in the process of recognition, adhesion and invasion of host cells. The aim of the current systematic review study is to clarify the latest status of studies in the literature regarding SAG1-associated recombinant proteins or SAG1-associated recombinant DNAs as potential vaccines against toxoplasmosis. Data were systematically collected from six databases including PubMed, Science Direct, Web of Science, Google Scholar, EBSCO and Scopus, up to 1st of January 2019. A total of 87 articles were eligible for inclusion criteria in the current systematic review. The most common antigens used for experimental cocktail vaccines together with SAG1 were ROP2 and SAG2. In addition, the most parasite strains used were RH and ME49. Freund's adjuvant and cholera toxin have been predominantly utilized. Furthermore, regarding the animal models, route and dose of vaccination, challenge methods, measurement of immune responses and cyst burden have been discussed in the text. Most of these experimental vaccines induce immune responses and have a high degree of protection against parasite infections, increase survival rates and duration and reduce cyst burdens. The data demonstrated that SAG1 antigen has a high potential for use as a vaccine and provided a promising approach for protecting humans and animals against toxoplasmosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abdol Sattar Pagheh
- Infectious Disease Research Center, Birjand University of Medical Sciences, Birjand, Iran
| | - Shahabeddin Sarvi
- Toxoplasmosis Research Center, Department of Parasitology, School of Medicine, Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran
| | - Mehdi Sharif
- Department of Parasitology, School of Medicine, Sari Branch, Islamic AZAD University, Sari, Iran
| | - Fatemeh Rezaei
- Toxoplasmosis Research Center, Department of Parasitology, School of Medicine, Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran
| | - Ehsan Ahmadpour
- Infectious and Tropical Diseases Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran; Department of Parasitology and Mycology, Faculty of Medicine, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Samira Dodangeh
- Toxoplasmosis Research Center, Department of Parasitology, School of Medicine, Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran
| | - Zahra Omidian
- Department of Pathology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, United States
| | - Hadi Hassannia
- Immunonogenetics Research Center, Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran
| | - Saeed Mehrzadi
- Razi Drug Research Center, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Ahmad Daryani
- Toxoplasmosis Research Center, Department of Parasitology, School of Medicine, Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran..
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Pagheh AS, Sarvi S, Gholami S, Asgarian-Omran H, Valadan R, Hassannia H, Ahmadpour E, Fasihi-Ramandie M, Dodangeh S, Hosseni-khah Z, Daryani A. Protective efficacy induced by DNA prime and recombinant protein boost vaccination with Toxoplasma gondii GRA14 in mice. Microb Pathog 2019; 134:103601. [DOI: 10.1016/j.micpath.2019.103601] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2019] [Revised: 06/14/2019] [Accepted: 06/14/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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Valkiūnas G, Ilgūnas M, Bukauskaitė D, Fragner K, Weissenböck H, Atkinson CT, Iezhova TA. Characterization of Plasmodium relictum, a cosmopolitan agent of avian malaria. Malar J 2018; 17:184. [PMID: 29720195 PMCID: PMC5930738 DOI: 10.1186/s12936-018-2325-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2018] [Accepted: 04/18/2018] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Microscopic research has shown that Plasmodium relictum is the most common agent of avian malaria. Recent molecular studies confirmed this conclusion and identified several mtDNA lineages, suggesting the existence of significant intra-species genetic variation or cryptic speciation. Most identified lineages have a broad range of hosts and geographical distribution. Here, a rare new lineage of P. relictum was reported and information about biological characters of different lineages of this pathogen was reviewed, suggesting issues for future research. Methods The new lineage pPHCOL01 was detected in Common chiffchaff Phylloscopus collybita, and the parasite was passaged in domestic canaries Serinus canaria. Organs of infected birds were examined using histology and chromogenic in situ hybridization methods. Culex quinquefasciatus mosquitoes, Zebra finch Taeniopygia guttata, Budgerigar Melopsittacus undulatus and European goldfinch Carduelis carduelis were exposed experimentally. Both Bayesian and Maximum Likelihood analyses identified the same phylogenetic relationships among different, closely-related lineages pSGS1, pGRW4, pGRW11, pLZFUS01, pPHCOL01 of P. relictum. Morphology of their blood stages was compared using fixed and stained blood smears, and biological properties of these parasites were reviewed. Results Common canary and European goldfinch were susceptible to the parasite pPHCOL01, and had markedly variable individual prepatent periods and light transient parasitaemia. Exo-erythrocytic and sporogonic stages were not seen. The Zebra finch and Budgerigar were resistant. Neither blood stages nor vector stages of all examined P. relictum lineages can be distinguished morphologically. Conclusion Within the huge spectrum of vertebrate hosts, mosquito vectors, and ecological conditions, different lineages of P. relictum exhibit indistinguishable, markedly variable morphological forms. Parasites of same lineages often develop differently in different bird species. Even more, the variation of biological properties (parasitaemia dynamics, blood pathology, prepatent period) in different isolates of the same lineage might be greater than the variation in different lineages during development in the same species of birds, indicating negligible taxonomic value of such features. Available lineage information is excellent for parasite diagnostics, but is limited in predictions about relationships in certain host-parasite associations. A combination of experiments, field observations, microscopic and molecular diagnostics is essential for understanding the role of different P. relictum lineages in bird health. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s12936-018-2325-2) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Mikas Ilgūnas
- Nature Research Centre, Akademijos 2, LT-08412, Vilnius, Lithuania
| | | | - Karin Fragner
- Institute of Pathology and Forensic Veterinary Medicine, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, 1210, Vienna, Austria
| | - Herbert Weissenböck
- Institute of Pathology and Forensic Veterinary Medicine, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, 1210, Vienna, Austria
| | - Carter T Atkinson
- U.S. Geological Survey, Pacific Island Ecosystems Research Center, Hawaii National Park, HI, 96718, USA
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Grilo ML, Vanstreels RET, Wallace R, García-Párraga D, Braga ÉM, Chitty J, Catão-Dias JL, Madeira de Carvalho LM. Malaria in penguins - current perceptions. Avian Pathol 2017; 45:393-407. [PMID: 27009571 DOI: 10.1080/03079457.2016.1149145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Avian malaria is a mosquito-borne disease caused by protozoans of the genus Plasmodium, and it is considered one of the most important causes of morbidity and mortality in captive penguins, both in zoological gardens and rehabilitation centres. Penguins are known to be highly susceptible to this disease, and outbreaks have been associated with mortality as high as 50-80% of affected captive populations within a few weeks. The disease has also been reported in wild penguin populations, however, its impacts on the health and fitness of penguins in the wild is not clear. This review provides an overview of the aetiology, life cycle and epidemiology of avian malaria, and provides details on the strategies that can be employed for the diagnostic, treatment and prevention of this disease in captive penguins, discussing possible directions for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- M L Grilo
- a Interdisciplinary Centre of Research in Animal Health (CIISA), Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária , Universidade de Lisboa , Lisboa , Portugal.,b Institute for Terrestrial and Aquatic Wildlife Research , University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Foundation , Buesum , Germany
| | - R E T Vanstreels
- c Laboratório de Patologia Comparada de Animais Selvagens, Departamento de Patologia, Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária e Zootecnia , Universidade de São Paulo , São Paulo , Brazil
| | - R Wallace
- d Milwaukee County Zoo , Milwaukee , WI , USA
| | - D García-Párraga
- e Veterinary Services , Oceanografic Ciudad de las Artes y las Ciencias , Valencia , Spain
| | - É M Braga
- f Departamento de Parasitologia , Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais , Belo Horizonte , Brazil
| | | | - J L Catão-Dias
- c Laboratório de Patologia Comparada de Animais Selvagens, Departamento de Patologia, Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária e Zootecnia , Universidade de São Paulo , São Paulo , Brazil
| | - L M Madeira de Carvalho
- a Interdisciplinary Centre of Research in Animal Health (CIISA), Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária , Universidade de Lisboa , Lisboa , Portugal
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Abstract
Blood parasites are considered some of the most significant pathogens for the conservation of penguins, due to the considerable morbidity and mortality they have been shown to produce in captive and wild populations of these birds. Parasites known to occur in the blood of penguins include haemosporidian protozoans (Plasmodium, Leucocytozoon, Haemoproteus), piroplamid protozoans (Babesia), kinetoplastid protozoans (Trypanosoma), spirochete bacteria (Borrelia) and nematode microfilariae. This review provides a critical and comprehensive assessment of the current knowledge on these parasites, providing an overview of their biology, host and geographic distribution, epidemiology, pathology and implications for public health and conservation.
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Bizelli CC, Silva ASR, da Costa JD, Vanstreels RET, Atzingen MV, Santoro ML, Fernandes I, Catão-Dias JL, Faquim-Mauro EL. Isolation and Characterization of IgM and IgY Antibodies from Plasma of Magellanic Penguins (Spheniscus magellanicus). Avian Dis 2015; 59:79-86. [PMID: 26292539 DOI: 10.1637/10738-112913-reg] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Infectious diseases such as aspergillosis, avian malaria, and viral infections are significant threats to the conservation of penguins, leading to morbidity and mortality of these birds both in captivity and in the wild. The immune response to such infectious diseases is dependent on different mechanisms mediated by cells and soluble components such as antibodies. Antibodies or immunoglobulins are glycoproteins that have many structural and functional features that mediate distinct effector immune functions. Three distinct classes of antibodies have been identified in birds: immunoglobulin A (IgA), immunoglobulin M (IgM), and immunoglobulin Y (IgY). In this study we aim to establish an efficient laboratory method to obtain IgM and IgY antibodies from plasma samples of healthy adult Magellanic penguins (Spheniscus magellanicus). The protocol was developed combining plasma delipidation, sequential precipitation with caprylic acid and ammonium sulfate, and size-exclusion chromatography. The efficiency of the protocol and the identity of the purified IgM and IgY antibodies were confirmed through enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, Western blotting, one-dimensional and two-dimensional polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, and lectin binding assay. Structural and physicochemical properties of IgM and IgY from Magellanic penguins were consistent with those of other avian species. This purification protocol will allow for more detailed studies on the humoral immunity of penguins and for the development of high specificity serologic assays to test Magellanic penguins for infectious pathogens.
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LaPointe DA, Atkinson CT, Samuel MD. Ecology and conservation biology of avian malaria. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2012; 1249:211-26. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2011.06431.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 176] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
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The protective effect of a Toxoplasma gondii SAG1 plasmid DNA vaccine in mice is enhanced with IL-18. Res Vet Sci 2010; 89:93-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.rvsc.2010.01.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2008] [Revised: 12/20/2009] [Accepted: 01/12/2010] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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Prevalence of avian malaria parasite in mosquitoes collected at a zoological garden in Japan. Parasitol Res 2009; 105:629-33. [PMID: 19352704 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-009-1434-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2009] [Accepted: 03/24/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Several species of captive birds at zoological gardens of Japan were found to be infected with avian Plasmodium. However, incriminated vector mosquito species have not been identified yet. To indicate the competent vectors of avian malaria parasite, we collected mosquitoes at a zoological garden in Japan and examined for the avian malaria parasite DNA. Totally, 1,361 mosquitoes of 11 species were collected in the zoological garden of Kanagawa, the south of Tokyo in Japan in 2005. Captured mosquitoes were pooled by each species, date collected, and location and used for DNA extraction. Eight out of 169 DNA samples were positive for the nested PCR of avian Plasmodium cyt b gene. Estimated minimum infection rates of mosquitoes were 5.9 per 1,000. The PCR positive mosquito species were Culex pipiens group and Lutzia vorax. Some DNA sequences amplified from collected mosquitoes were identical to avian Plasmodium lineages detected from captive birds in the same zoological garden studied. Our results suggest that C. pipiens group and L. vorax could be incriminated vectors of avian malaria parasite transmitting in captive birds kept in the zoological garden in Japan.
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Rao S, Kong WP, Wei CJ, Yang ZY, Nason M, Styles D, DeTolla LJ, Sorrell EM, Song H, Wan H, Ramirez-Nieto GC, Perez D, Nabel GJ. Multivalent HA DNA vaccination protects against highly pathogenic H5N1 avian influenza infection in chickens and mice. PLoS One 2008; 3:e2432. [PMID: 19293944 PMCID: PMC2657001 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0002432] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2008] [Accepted: 05/02/2008] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Sustained outbreaks of highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H5N1 in avian species increase the risk of reassortment and adaptation to humans. The ability to contain its spread in chickens would reduce this threat and help maintain the capacity for egg-based vaccine production. While vaccines offer the potential to control avian disease, a major concern of current vaccines is their potency and inability to protect against evolving avian influenza viruses. METHODOLOGY / PRINCIPAL FINDINGS The ability of DNA vaccines encoding hemagglutinin (HA) proteins from different HPAI H5N1 serotypes was evaluated for its ability to elicit neutralizing antibodies and to protect against homologous and heterologous HPAI H5N1 strain challenge in mice and chickens after DNA immunization by needle and syringe or with a pressure injection device. These vaccines elicited antibodies that neutralized multiple strains of HPAI H5N1 when given in combinations containing up to 10 HAs. The response was dose-dependent, and breadth was determined by the choice of the influenza virus HA in the vaccine. Monovalent and trivalent HA vaccines were tested first in mice and conferred protection against lethal H5N1 A/Vietnam/1203/2004 challenge 68 weeks after vaccination. In chickens, protection was observed against heterologous strains of HPAI H5N1 after vaccination with a trivalent H5 serotype DNA vaccine with doses as low as 5 microg DNA given twice either by intramuscular needle injection or with a needle-free device. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE DNA vaccines offer a generic approach to influenza virus immunization applicable to multiple animal species. In addition, the ability to substitute plasmids encoding different strains enables rapid adaptation of the vaccine to newly evolving field isolates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Srinivas Rao
- Vaccine Research Center, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Wing-Pui Kong
- Vaccine Research Center, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Chih-Jen Wei
- Vaccine Research Center, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Zhi-Yong Yang
- Vaccine Research Center, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Martha Nason
- Vaccine Research Center, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Darrel Styles
- United States Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Riverdale, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Louis J. DeTolla
- Comparative Medicine, University of Maryland Baltimore, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Erin M. Sorrell
- College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Haichen Song
- College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Hongquan Wan
- College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Gloria C. Ramirez-Nieto
- College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Daniel Perez
- College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Gary J. Nabel
- Vaccine Research Center, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Scheiblhofer S, Weiss R, Thalhamer J. Genetic vaccination approaches against malaria based on the circumsporozoite protein. Wien Klin Wochenschr 2006; 118:9-17. [PMID: 17131235 DOI: 10.1007/s00508-006-0676-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Malaria is the world's major parasitic disease, for which effective control measures are urgently needed. Despite considerable efforts, no successful vaccine against malaria has been developed so far. The method of DNA-based immunization offers the possibility to induce both antibody- and cell-mediated immune responses to a variety of antigens. The flexibility of the DNA vaccine technology permits the combination of several antigens from different developmental stages of the parasite's complicated life cycle. This review covers the development of DNA-based immunization against malaria from initial experiments in small animals to recently conducted clinical studies. Focusing on one of the best characterized malaria vaccine candidate antigens, the circumsporozoite protein, an overview of strategies to enhance vaccine efficacy is provided. Advanced application methods such as the gene gun technology or the needle-less jet injection device are described. As DNA vaccination represents a relatively new methodology, safety concerns associated with planned clinical applications are discussed. In summary, this novel type of vaccine has to be considered as a promising tool for future malaria vaccination strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandra Scheiblhofer
- Division of Allergy and Immunology, Department of Molecular Biology, University of Salzburg, Salzburg, Austria
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