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Peralta Alvarez MP, Jones H, Redondo Azema H, Davis C, White AD, Sarfas C, Dennis M, Li S, Wright D, Puentes E, Kimuda S, Belij-Rammerstorfer S, Aguilo N, Martin C, Sharpe S, McShane H, Tanner R. Low-dose M.tb infection but not BCG or MTBVAC vaccination enhances heterologous antibody titres in non-human primates. Front Immunol 2024; 15:1387454. [PMID: 38799468 PMCID: PMC11116990 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2024.1387454] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2024] [Accepted: 04/24/2024] [Indexed: 05/29/2024] Open
Abstract
Introduction Mycobacteria are known to exert a range of heterologous effects on the immune system. The mycobacteria-based Freund's Complete Adjuvant is a potent non-specific stimulator of the immune response used in immunization protocols promoting antibody production, and Mycobacterium bovis Bacille Calmette Guérin (BCG) vaccination has been linked with decreased morbidity and mortality beyond the specific protection it provides against tuberculosis (TB) in some populations and age groups. The role of heterologous antibodies in this phenomenon, if any, remains unclear and under-studied. Methods We set out to evaluate antibody responses to a range of unrelated pathogens following infection with Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M.tb) and vaccination with BCG or a candidate TB vaccine, MTBVAC, in non-human primates. Results We demonstrate a significant increase in the titer of antibodies against SARS-CoV-2, cytomegalovirus, Epstein-Barr virus, tetanus toxoid, and respiratory syncytial virus antigens following low-dose aerosol infection with M.tb. The magnitude of some of these responses correlated with TB disease severity. However, vaccination with BCG administered by the intradermal, intravenous or aerosol routes, or intradermal delivery of MTBVAC, did not increase antibody responses against unrelated pathogens. Discussion Our findings suggest that it is unlikely that heterologous antibodies contribute to the non-specific effects of these vaccines. The apparent dysregulation of B cell responses associated with TB disease warrants further investigation, with potential implications for risk of B cell cancers and novel therapeutic strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Holly Jones
- Jenner Institute, Nuffield Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Hugo Redondo Azema
- Jenner Institute, Nuffield Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Chloe Davis
- Medical Sciences Division, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Andrew D. White
- United Kingdom (UK) Health Security Agency, Salisbury, United Kingdom
| | - Charlotte Sarfas
- United Kingdom (UK) Health Security Agency, Salisbury, United Kingdom
| | - Mike Dennis
- United Kingdom (UK) Health Security Agency, Salisbury, United Kingdom
| | - Shuailin Li
- Jenner Institute, Nuffield Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Daniel Wright
- Jenner Institute, Nuffield Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Eugenia Puentes
- Clinical Research Department y Research and Development Department, Biofabri, Grupo Zendal, Pontevedra, Spain
| | - Simon Kimuda
- Department of Infectious Diseases, School of Immunology & Microbial Sciences, London, United Kingdom
| | | | - Nacho Aguilo
- University of Zaragoza, Spanish Network for Research on Respiratory Diseases (CIBERES), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - Carlos Martin
- University of Zaragoza, Spanish Network for Research on Respiratory Diseases (CIBERES), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - Sally Sharpe
- United Kingdom (UK) Health Security Agency, Salisbury, United Kingdom
| | - Helen McShane
- Jenner Institute, Nuffield Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Rachel Tanner
- Department of Biology, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
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Abdolmohammadi Khiav L, Zahmatkesh A. Major pathogenic Clostridia in human and progress toward the clostridial vaccines. IRANIAN JOURNAL OF BASIC MEDICAL SCIENCES 2022; 25:1059-1068. [PMID: 36246067 PMCID: PMC9526890 DOI: 10.22038/ijbms.2022.65518.14417] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2022] [Accepted: 07/20/2022] [Indexed: 12/02/2022]
Abstract
The Clostridium genus is composed of a large spectrum of heterogeneous bacteria. They are Gram-positive, mostly mesophilic, and anaerobic spore-forming strains. Clostridia are widely distributed in oxygen-free habitats. They are found principally in the soil and intestines of ruminants as normal flora, but also are the cause of several infections in humans. The infections produced by important species in humans include botulism, tetanus, pseudomembranous colitis, antibiotics-associated diarrhea, and gas gangrene. Immunization with toxoid or bacterin-toxoid or genetically modified or other vaccines is a protective way against clostridial infection. Several experimental or commercial vaccines have been developed worldwide. Although conventional vaccines including toxoid vaccines are very important, the new generation of vaccines is an effective alternative to conventional vaccines. Recent advances have made it possible for new vaccines to increase immunogenicity. This review discusses briefly the important species of clostridia in humans, their toxins structure, and vaccine development and usage throughout the world.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lida Abdolmohammadi Khiav
- Department of Anaerobic Vaccine Research and Production, Specialized Clostridia Research Laboratory, Razi Vaccine and Serum Research Institute, Agricultural Research, Education and Extension Organization, Karaj, Iran
| | - Azadeh Zahmatkesh
- Department of Anaerobic Vaccine Research and Production, Specialized Clostridia Research Laboratory, Razi Vaccine and Serum Research Institute, Agricultural Research, Education and Extension Organization, Karaj, Iran
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Association of Primate Veterinarians Guidelines for Wound Management of Nonhuman Primates. JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR LABORATORY ANIMAL SCIENCE : JAALAS 2022; 61:315-319. [PMID: 35918830 PMCID: PMC9674012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
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Massey DA, Peters F, Willshire J, Witham CL. Factors Associated with Injury Rate and Pregnancy Success in Rhesus Macaques. BIOLOGY 2022; 11:979. [PMID: 36101360 PMCID: PMC9311521 DOI: 10.3390/biology11070979] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2022] [Revised: 06/11/2022] [Accepted: 06/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Fight injuries are a major welfare concern in group-housed rhesus macaques. This is particularly a problem in breeding groups. We investigated which factors might affect the injury rate in group-housed macaques and also looked at how the same factors might affect productivity. We analysed 10 years of health records at a breeding colony in which monkeys were kept in small breeding groups consisting of a single adult male and 2−13 females and their offspring or single-sex juvenile groups. We found that females over the age of 2.5 years in breeding groups were the most likely to be injured. We focused on these females and used generalised mixed-effect models to examine which factors affected the injury rate and their productivity (probability of getting pregnant). The biggest risk factor for injury was the introduction of a new adult male to a breeding group. However, this also produced a large increase in the proportion of females that became pregnant, suggesting that there may be a trade-off between the risk of injury and the productivity. We also found that females in large groups with a young breeding male had a very high risk of injury. We recommend keeping young breeding males (<7 years) in smaller groups.
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Affiliation(s)
- David A. Massey
- Centre for Macaques, Harwell Institute, Medical Research Council, Salisbury SP4 0JQ, UK; (D.A.M.); (F.P.)
- Biosciences Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne NE2 4HH, UK
| | - Faye Peters
- Centre for Macaques, Harwell Institute, Medical Research Council, Salisbury SP4 0JQ, UK; (D.A.M.); (F.P.)
| | | | - Claire L. Witham
- Centre for Macaques, Harwell Institute, Medical Research Council, Salisbury SP4 0JQ, UK; (D.A.M.); (F.P.)
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A RETROSPECTIVE STUDY OF BITE WOUND MANAGEMENT IN RING-TAILED LEMURS ( LEMUR CATTA) HOUSED WITHIN FIVE BRITISH ZOOS. J Zoo Wildl Med 2022; 52:1263-1269. [PMID: 34998298 DOI: 10.1638/2020-0160] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Captive nonhuman primates frequently experience bite wounds inflicted by conspecifics; however, few studies evaluate wound management in these animals. This study evaluates bite wound management in 35 captive ring-tailed lemurs (RTL, Lemur catta) held within five British zoological institutions between 2015 and 2019. Treatments for 152 bite incidents resulting in 211 bite wounds were summarized. Treatment efficacy and potential risk factors for bite wound complications were evaluated for correlations with outcomes. Treatments in the first 48 hours included analgesia alone (54/152; 35.5%); analgesia and antimicrobials (42/152; 27.6%); no treatment (26/152; 17.1%); analgesia, antimicrobials, and wound management under anesthesia (24/152; 15.8%); and antimicrobials alone (6/152; 3.9%). Poor outcomes were observed in RTL in association with 20.4% of wounds (43/211): signs of pain (SOP) after 48 hours were the most common (30/211; 14.2%), followed by signs of infection (SOI, 16/211; 7.6%), wound dehiscence (7/211; 3.3%), and abnormal function or behavior at day 30 (4/ 211; 1.9%). Poor outcomes were more likely with severe bite wounds and bite wounds to the hand or limb (thoracic or pelvic, excluding the hand or foot). Specifically, SOP were more likely to be observed with severe wounds and solitary wounds, and SOI were more likely to be observed with wounds not treated with early antimicrobials. When SOI occurred, most resolved with antimicrobial treatment alone. Early analgesia is recommended for RTL with bite wounds. If SOP persist, multimodal analgesia should be administered. Clinicians should consider withholding antimicrobials for RTL with bite wounds of mild and moderate severity until SOI are observed.
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Coagulation factor XII contributes to hemostasis when activated by soil in wounds. Blood Adv 2021; 4:1737-1745. [PMID: 32339233 DOI: 10.1182/bloodadvances.2019000425] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2019] [Accepted: 03/24/2020] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Bleeding is a common contributor to death and morbidity in animals and provides strong selective pressure for the coagulation system to optimize hemostasis for diverse environments. Although coagulation factor XII (FXII) is activated by nonbiologic surfaces, such as silicates, which leads to blood clotting in vitro, it is unclear whether FXII contributes to hemostasis in vivo. Humans and mice lacking FXII do not appear to bleed more from clean wounds than their counterparts with normal FXII levels. We tested the hypothesis that soil, a silicate-rich material abundant in the environment and wounds of terrestrial mammals, is a normal and potent activator of FXII and coagulation. Blood loss was compared between wild-type (WT) and FXII-knocked out (FXII-/-) mice after soil or exogenous tissue factor was applied to transected tails. The activation of FXII and other components of the coagulation and contact system was assessed with in vitro coagulation and enzyme assays. Soils were analyzed by time-of-flight secondary ionization mass spectrometry and dynamic light scattering. Soil reduced blood loss in WT mice, but not FXII-/- mice. Soil accelerated clotting of blood plasma from humans and mice in a FXII-dependent manner, but not plasma from a cetacean or a bird, which lack FXII. The procoagulant activity of 13 soils strongly correlated with the surface concentration of silicon, but only moderately correlated with the ζ potential. FXII augments coagulation in soil-contaminated wounds of terrestrial mammals, perhaps explaining why this protein has a seemingly minor role in hemostasis in clean wounds.
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MANAGEMENT OF MEDICAL COMPLICATIONS ASSOCIATED WITH A PRESUMED TETANUS INFECTION IN A NORTHWEST BORNEAN ORANGUTAN ( PONGO PYGMAEUS PYGMAEUS). J Zoo Wildl Med 2021; 51:1072-1076. [PMID: 33480593 DOI: 10.1638/2020-0120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/23/2020] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
An 18-yr-old female orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus pygmaeus) developed opisthotonus after sustaining conspecific bite wounds 3 wk earlier. The orangutan developed progressive tetraparesis and dysphagia, despite normal mentation, suggestive of tetanus. A tetanus vaccine had been administered at 2 yr of age, but none since. Brain magnetic resonance imaging, computed tomography, cerebral spinal fluid tap, and bloodwork were unremarkable. Viral, Baylisascaris, and tetanus toxin testing were negative. A femoral central venous catheter (CVC) was placed to provide medications, fluids, and parenteral nutrition. The orangutan received human tetanus immunoglobulin, tetanus toxoid, penicillin, methocarbamol, and analgesia. After 1 wk, the catheterized limb became edematous; a deep vein thrombosis (DVT) was diagnosed ultrasonographically. A cephalic CVC was placed, the limb casted, intravenous therapy reinitiated, and enoxaparin started. The orangutan became mobile days later, and progressively improved. Despite no compliance with enoxaparin, the DVT resolved without residual signs. This is the first reported case of presumptive tetanus and DVT in a great ape.
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Zaragoza NE, Orellana CA, Moonen GA, Moutafis G, Marcellin E. Vaccine Production to Protect Animals Against Pathogenic Clostridia. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:E525. [PMID: 31514424 PMCID: PMC6783934 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11090525] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2019] [Revised: 08/26/2019] [Accepted: 08/28/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Clostridium is a broad genus of anaerobic, spore-forming, rod-shaped, Gram-positive bacteria that can be found in different environments all around the world. The genus includes human and animal pathogens that produce potent exotoxins that cause rapid and potentially fatal diseases responsible for countless human casualties and billion-dollar annual loss to the agricultural sector. Diseases include botulism, tetanus, enterotoxemia, gas gangrene, necrotic enteritis, pseudomembranous colitis, blackleg, and black disease, which are caused by pathogenic Clostridium. Due to their ability to sporulate, they cannot be eradicated from the environment. As such, immunization with toxoid or bacterin-toxoid vaccines is the only protective method against infection. Toxins recovered from Clostridium cultures are inactivated to form toxoids, which are then formulated into multivalent vaccines. This review discusses the toxins, diseases, and toxoid production processes of the most common pathogenic Clostridium species, including Clostridiumbotulinum, Clostridiumtetani, Clostridiumperfringens, Clostridiumchauvoei, Clostridiumsepticum, Clostridiumnovyi and Clostridiumhemolyticum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicolas E. Zaragoza
- Australian Institute for Bioengineering and Nanotechnology (AIBN), The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia; (N.E.Z.); (C.A.O.)
| | - Camila A. Orellana
- Australian Institute for Bioengineering and Nanotechnology (AIBN), The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia; (N.E.Z.); (C.A.O.)
| | - Glenn A. Moonen
- Zoetis, 45 Poplar Road, Parkville VIC 3052, Australia; (G.A.M.); (G.M.)
| | - George Moutafis
- Zoetis, 45 Poplar Road, Parkville VIC 3052, Australia; (G.A.M.); (G.M.)
| | - Esteban Marcellin
- Australian Institute for Bioengineering and Nanotechnology (AIBN), The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia; (N.E.Z.); (C.A.O.)
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Stammen RL, Cohen JK, Meeker TL, Crane MM, Amara RR, Hicks SL, Meyer JS, Ethun KF. Effect of Chronic Social Stress on Prenatal Transfer of Antitetanus Immunity in Captive Breeding Rhesus Macaques ( Macaca mulatta). JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR LABORATORY ANIMAL SCIENCE : JAALAS 2018; 57:357-367. [PMID: 29764539 PMCID: PMC6059219 DOI: 10.30802/aalas-jaalas-17-000102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Because tetanus can cause significant morbidity and mortality in NHP, colonywide vaccination with tetanus toxoid is recommended for outdoor breeding colonies of rhesus macaques, with primary immunizations commonly given to infants at 6 mo of age followed by booster vaccines every 10 y. Maternal antibodies are thought to offer protective immunity to infants younger than 6 mo. However, historical colony data from the Yerkes National Primate Research Center show a higher incidence of tetanus among infants (≤ 6 mo old) born to subordinate dams. Whether this higher incidence of infantile tetanus is due to a higher incidence of trauma among subordinate animals or is a stress-induced impairment of maternal antibody protection is unknown. Studies in other NHP species suggest that chronic exposure to social stressors interferes with the receptor-mediated transplacental transfer of IgG. Therefore, the primary aim of this study was to determine whether chronic stress associated with social subordination impairs prenatal transfer of antitetanus immunity in breeding female rhesus macaques. Subjects included 26 high- and 26 low-ranking adult female rhesus macaques that were nearly 5 or 10 y after their initial immunization and their nonimmunized infants. We hypothesized that infants born to subordinate dams that were nearly 10 y after immunization would have the lowest infant-to-dam antibody ratios and thus would be at greatest risk for infection. Results revealed no significant intergroup differences in infant antitetanus IgG levels. However, infant-to-dam IgG ratios against tetanus were significantly lower among subordinate animals compared with dominant macaques, after accounting for the number of years since the dam's initial vaccination. In addition, higher maternal hair cortisol levels predicted lower infantto-dam tetanus toxoid IgG ratios. Together, these findings suggest that chronic social stress in female rhesus macaques may hamper the prenatal transfer of antitetanus immunity to offspring.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachelle L Stammen
- Divisions of Animal Resources, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Joyce K Cohen
- Divisions of Animal Resources, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Tracy L Meeker
- Divisions of Animal Resources, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Maria M Crane
- Divisions of Animal Resources, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Rama R Amara
- Divisions of Microbiology and Immunology, Departments of Microbiology and Immunology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Sakeenah L Hicks
- Divisions of Microbiology and Immunology, Emory Vaccine Center, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Jerrold S Meyer
- Departments of Neuroscience and Behavior Program, Department of Psychology, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts
| | - Kelly F Ethun
- Divisions of Animal Resources, Developmental and Cognitive Neurosciences, Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, Departments of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia;,
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Mätz-Rensing K, Lowenstine LJ. New World and Old World Monkeys. PATHOLOGY OF WILDLIFE AND ZOO ANIMALS 2018:343-374. [DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-805306-5.00014-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2025]
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KESSLER MATTHEWJ, PACHECO RAISAHERNÁNDEZ, RAWLINS RICHARDG, RUIZ-LAMBRIDES ANGELINA, DELGADO DIANAL, SABAT ALBERTOM. Long-term effects of tetanus toxoid inoculation on the demography and life expectancy of the Cayo Santiago rhesus macaques. Am J Primatol 2015; 77:211-21. [PMID: 25230585 PMCID: PMC4308566 DOI: 10.1002/ajp.22323] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2014] [Revised: 07/10/2014] [Accepted: 07/19/2014] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Tetanus was a major cause of mortality in the free-ranging population of rhesus monkeys on Cayo Santiago prior to 1985 when the entire colony was given its first dose of tetanus toxoid. The immediate reduction in mortality that followed tetanus toxoid inoculation (TTI) has been documented, but the long-term demographic effects of eliminating tetanus infections have not. This study uses the Cayo Santiago demographic database to construct comparative life tables 12 years before, and 12 years after, TTI. Life tables and matrix projection models are used to test for differences in: (i) survival among all individuals as well as among social groups, (ii) long-term fitness of the population, (iii) age distribution, (iv) reproductive value, and (v) life expectancy. A retrospective life table response experiment (LTRE) was performed to determine which life cycle transition contributed most to observed changes in long-term fitness of the population post-TTI. Elimination of clinical tetanus infections through mass inoculation improved the health and well-being of the monkeys. It also profoundly affected the population by increasing survivorship and long-term fitness, decreasing the differences in survival rates among social groups, shifting the population's age distribution towards older individuals, and increasing reproductive value and life expectancy. These findings are significant because they demonstrate the long-term effects of eradicating a major cause of mortality at a single point in time on survival, reproduction, and overall demography of a naturalistic population of primates.
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Affiliation(s)
- MATTHEW J. KESSLER
- Office of Laboratory Animal Resources, Robert C. Byrd Health Sciences Center, West Virginia University, Morgantown, West Virginia
| | - RAISA HERNÁNDEZ PACHECO
- Caribbean Primate Research Center, University of Puerto Rico Medical Sciences Campus, San Juan, Puerto Rico
| | - RICHARD G. RAWLINS
- Caribbean Primate Research Center, University of Puerto Rico Medical Sciences Campus, San Juan, Puerto Rico
| | - ANGELINA RUIZ-LAMBRIDES
- Caribbean Primate Research Center, University of Puerto Rico Medical Sciences Campus, San Juan, Puerto Rico
| | - DIANA L. DELGADO
- University of Puerto Rico, Department of Biology, San Juan, Puerto Rico
| | - ALBERTO M. SABAT
- University of Puerto Rico, Department of Biology, San Juan, Puerto Rico
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Nakano T, Nakamura SI, Yamamoto A, Takahashi M, Une Y. Tetanus as cause of mass die-off of captive Japanese macaques, Japan, 2008. Emerg Infect Dis 2013; 18:1633-5. [PMID: 23017658 PMCID: PMC3471634 DOI: 10.3201/eid1810.120503] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
In 2008 in Japan, 15/60 captive Japanese macaques died. Clostridium tetani was isolated from 1 monkey, and 11 had tetanus-specific symptoms. We conclude the outbreak resulted from severe environmental C. tetani contamination. Similar outbreaks could be prevented by vaccinating all monkeys, disinfecting housing areas/play equipment, replacing highly C. tetani–contaminated soil, and conducting epidemiologic surveys.
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Abstract
A zoonotic disease is transmissible from vertebrate animals to humans. This article focuses on pertinent zoonotic diseases that have to be taken into consideration when working with nonhuman primate (NHP) species. Many factors may influence the occurrence of these diseases. Human and NHPs share many similarities, not only anatomically but also physiologically. NHP are valuable models for many human infectious diseases; therefore, staff can be exposed to many potential pathogens. In general, the disease state of a primate can range from asymptomatic carrier to death from infection.
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