HEALTH ASSESSMENT OF CAPTIVE PSITTACINE SPECIES IN PRERELEASE PROGRAMS AT COSTA RICAN RESCUE CENTERS

Psittacine beak and feather disease in 2 free-living great green macaws: a case report and literature review

Psittacine beak and feather disease (PBFD) is caused by the psittacine beak and feather disease virus (PBFDV; Circoviridae, Circovirus parrot). This disease affects mainly young captive birds, inducing lesions mainly in the skin adnexa and lymphoid organs. Here we report PBFD in 2 free-living great green macaws (Ara ambiguus). The birds were depressed and had lost feathers and body condition. The diagnosis was confirmed by gross lesions and PCR testing in one bird, and by gross and microscopic lesions, PCR testing, viral sequencing, and in situ hybridization in the other bird. Gross lesions in both birds included mild beak discoloration and feather loss. Microscopic lesions in the bird whose tissues were examined histologically included bronchopneumonia and severe lymphoid depletion with intracytoplasmic and intranuclear botryoid inclusion bodies in the cloacal bursa. Sequences of the viral DNA obtained from paraffin-embedded cloacal bursa tissue had 100% nucleotide and 100% amino acid identity with several strains of PBFDV isolated from captive birds in multiple countries. To our knowledge, PBFD has not been reported previously in free-living great green macaws.

Survey of Beak and Feather Disease Virus (BFDV) in Guatemalan Neotropical Psittacine Birds

Beak and feather disease virus (BFDV), a circovirus, is the etiologic agent of psittacine beak and feather disease (PBFD), a progressive and often fatal disease in Psittaciformes. Even though neotropical psittacine species are more resistant to clinical infection than Old World species, BFDV is recognized as a threat to immunologically naïve wild psittacine flocks and its epidemiologic control is paramount for conservation efforts in Neotropical species. Samples were collected from multiple psittacine species, including Ara species, Amazona species, and the white-crowned parrot (Pionus senilis) from the only rescue center in Guatemala with formal psittacine rehabilitation and reintroduction programs. A total of 117 birds, with 101 adults and 16 juveniles of unknown sex, were tested for BFDV by means of a real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assay. The BFDV prevalence found in this study was 0%, (95% confidence interval, 0%-6.0%). Seven 2-8-year-old scarlet macaws (Ara macao cyanoptera) with positive results from previous surveys by conventional PCR yielded negative results in this study, suggesting complete infection resolution.

Illegal Wildlife Trade and Emerging Infectious Diseases: Pervasive Impacts to Species, Ecosystems and Human Health

Emerging infectious disease (EID) events can be traced to anthropogenic factors, including the movement of wildlife through legal and illegal trade. This paper focuses on the link between illegal wildlife trade (IWT) and infectious disease pathogens. A literature review through Web of Science and relevant conference proceedings from 1990 to 2020 resulted in documenting 82 papers and 240 identified pathogen cases. Over 60% of the findings referred to pathogens with known zoonotic potential and five cases directly referenced zoonotic spillover events. The diversity of pathogens by taxa included 44 different pathogens in birds, 47 in mammals, 16 in reptiles, two in amphibians, two in fish, and one in invertebrates. This is the highest diversity of pathogen types in reported literature related to IWT. However, it is likely not a fully representative sample due to needed augmentation of surveillance and monitoring of IWT and more frequent pathogen testing on recovered shipments. The emergence of infectious disease through human globalization has resulted in several pandemics in the last decade including SARS, MERS, avian influenza H1N1,and Ebola. We detailed the growing body of literature on this topic since 2008 and highlight the need to detect, document, and prevent spillovers from high-risk human activities, such as IWT.

The importance of long-term studies on wildlife diseases and their interfaces with humans and domestic animals: A review

Long-term wildlife disease research (LTWDR) and its interfaces with humans and domestic animals provide perspective to understand the diseases' main drivers and how they operate. In a systematic review, we analysed the temporal trend of the studies on LTWDR, their aims, and the hosts, pathogens and geographic areas studied. We also evaluated the added value that such studies provide. For analysis, we selected a total of 538 articles from 1993 to 2017 with a study period greater than or equal to 4 consecutive years. A marked increase in the number of studies published during the last 20 years was observed that reflects a growing awareness of the outstanding role of wildlife as a reservoir of diseases. The most studied pathogen agents were viruses (39.2%), bacteria (38.5%) and protozoans (15.8%). Concerning the hosts, mammals (84.9%), particularly ungulates (40%) and carnivores (30.9%), and birds (12.5%) were the most represented in these long-term studies. Most articles reached conclusions concerning the effect of the disease on the infection/host dynamics (98.7%) and over 40% considered the economic consequences or proposed management and control measures. The research was mainly located in the Northern Hemisphere. While the definition of LTWDR is not only determined by the duration of the monitoring, the study must be long enough to: (a) address ecological and epidemiological questions that cannot be resolved with short-term observations or experiments, and (b) clarify the effects of different drivers. This review demonstrates that LTWDR has provided information about the causes and consequences of disease change that otherwise could not have been obtained. It may be used to inform decisions related to the emergence of disease and might help to design early warning systems of disease based on retrospective investigations.

INTESTINAL AND BLOOD PARASITES IN SCARLET (ARA MACAO) AND GREAT GREEN (ARA AMBIGUA) MACAWS IN WILDLIFE REHABILITATION CENTERS IN COSTA RICA

Costa Rica undertakes continuous efforts to recover the native population of macaw species through rehabilitation programs for breeding and releasing birds in protected areas. In the summer of 2018, a total of 107 scarlet (Ara macao) and 93 great green (Ara ambigua) macaws were sampled in four wildlife rehabilitation centers in Costa Rica. Fecal samples representing 200 individuals were analyzed for intestinal parasites, and 23 individuals were sampled for hemoparasites. Ascaridia and Capillaria were found in fecal samples. No hemoparasites were found. The distribution of percentage of infection was analyzed by location, species, and housing type. As part of a health screening prior to release, parasitological examination is recommended.