DESCRIPTIONS AND PHYLOGENETIC AFFINITIES OF TWO NEW SPECIES OF RHABDIAS STILES AND HASSALL, 1905 (NEMATODA: RHABDIASIDAE) FROM NORTH AMERICAN FROGS: ARE WE STILL ONLY SCRATCHING THE SURFACE?

Two new species of lung-dwelling nematodes are described from North American frogs: Rhabdias aurorae n. sp. from Rana aurora and Rhabdias conni n. sp. from Rana clamitans and Rana catesbeiana from Arkansas; the latter species was also found in Oklahoma and Georgia. Rhabdias aurorae n. sp. differs from other Nearctic congeners in the combination of the following characteristics: buccal capsule 22-25 μm wide, elongated tail covered with inflated cuticle, esophagus with prominent dilatation in anterior part and 6 small circumoral lips. Rhabdias conni n. sp. is morphologically closest to Rhabdias ranae Walton, 1929 and Rhabdias joaquinensisIngles, 1936; it differs from them in the shape of lateral pseudolabia, the dimensions of the body, and the egg size. Both new species were found to be significantly different from the Nearctic congeners in the nucleotide sequences of nuclear ribosomal DNA (18S-ITS-28S region), 12S, and CO1 mitochondrial genes. The 2 new species differ from other currently sequenced Nearctic congeners by 1.1-2.7% of nucleotide positions in the nuclear rDNA region, 1.3-3.4% in the 12S gene, and 3.4-9.4% in CO1 gene. Molecular phylogenetic analysis based on nuclear ribosomal DNA sequences placed both new species into the clade consisting of Nearctic and Neotropical Rhabdias spp. The position of Rh. aurorae n. sp. within the clade is uncertain because of a polytomy, but Rh. conni n. sp. is nested within the "Rh. joaquinensis complex" related to Rh. ranae and Rhabdias tarichaeKuzmin, Tkach, and Snyder, 2003. The phylogenetic analysis based on nuclear ribosomal DNA sequences has revealed 3 evolutionary host-switching events from anuran to caudatan hosts among Rhabdias spp. that occurred in the Nearctic and Palearctic. The molecular phylogeny also suggests that Rhabdias may have originally evolved in what is now Africa.

Phylogeography of Rhabdias spp. (Nematoda: Rhabdiasidae) collected from Bufo species in Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu, Japan including possible cryptic species

The genus Rhabdias Stiles & Hassall, 1905 comprises lung parasites of amphibians and reptiles worldwide. In Japan, 9 species have been recorded, including Rhabdias incerta Wilkie, 1930 which has been reported only in Bufo species. In this study, to assess the diversity of R. incerta, we performed molecular analyses of Rhabdias species sampled from three species/subspecies of Japanese toads namely Bufo japonicus, B. japonicus formosus, and B. torrenticola, collected in various regions of Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu, Japan. DNA sequence divergence was compared using mtDNA (COI) and nuclear DNA (28S) to identify possible cryptic species. Morphological analysis was performed through light microscopy and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The results revealed that Bufo spp. serve as hosts for at least three Rhabdias species. Morphologically, most samples were identified as R. incerta but with a longer body and larger buccal cavity than originally described. Rhabdias incerta appears to be specific to the genus Bufo and is further subdivided into two or three phylogroups based on subspecies divisions and biogeography of their host. Some Rhabdias specimens collected in this study resemble R. tokyoensis Wilkie, 1930, parasitic in hosts from the order Caudata, which suggests host switching. Both molecular and morphological analyses suggested the presence of undescribed and cryptic Rhabdias species within toads collected in Japan. This study was the first to molecularly characterize Rhabdias species in Japan, including novel sequences of R. incerta and two undescribed species.

Integrative taxonomy suggests that South American freshwater nematodes Echinocephalus and their host stingrays co-originated in late Oligocene to early Miocene

Nematoda of the genus Echinocephalus Molin, 1858 include species from the Gnathostomatidae family, the adult stages of which parasitize the stomach and spiral intestine of elasmobranchs as their final hosts. In the present study, we describe Echinocephalus spinosus n. sp. found parasitizing the spiral valve of the freshwater stingray Potamotrygon motoro from the Tapajós River, in the Amazon Basin, in the state of Pará, Brazil. In the study we performed morphological (light and scanning electron microscopy) and molecular (small subunit ribosomal ribonucleic acid (SSU rDNA) and mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase I sequencing) analyses. E. spinosus n. sp. is only the second species of the Echinocephalus genus described from a strictly freshwater environment. The SSU rDNA based phylogenetic analyses showed Echinocephalus clade as a sister lineage of Gnathostoma, and that the new species arises as a sister to Echinocephalus cf. pseudouncinatus. Time-calibrated phylogenetic analysis revealed that the origin of the freshwater Echinocephalus coincides with the recently proposed origin of the freshwater host potamotrygonin stingray, namely the late Oligocene to early Miocene, when the western Amazon was dominated by the Pebas wetlands, an epicontinental marine/freshwater system.

Description of Crenosoma vismani n. sp., parasitic in the lungs of Lynx lynx (L.) (Carnivora: Felidae), with identification key to the species of the genus Crenosoma Molin, 1861 (Nematoda: Crenosomatidae)

A new species of Crenosoma Molin, 1861 is described from the lungs of the Eurasian lynx, Lynx lynx (L.) (Carnivora: Felidae). Crenosoma vismani n. sp. differs from other species of the genus in the morphology of the male copulatory organs (two ventral rays originating from a common stem; three lateral rays with common stem; gubernaculum 79-92 μm long, well developed, spoon-shaped; spicules 232-253 μm long, slightly curved, with robust dorsal appendage) and a vulva with rounded, prominent vulvar cuticular appendage is located in middle region of body in females. An analysis of the morphology and life-cycle data for Crenosoma petrowi Morozov, 1939 from Ursus americanus Pallas indicate that this nematode should be described as a new species. The validity of Crenosoma schulzi Gagarin, 1958 is resurrected. A new identification key for the species of Crenosoma is provided. Published records of the genus Crenosoma from definitive hosts and patterns of host specificity are presented. Morphological data revealed that the genus Crenosoma should contain 15 species (14 with valid names) with different host specificity, ranging from oioxenous to euryxenous. However, a review of the current genetic data indicates that the actual number of Crenosoma spp. is greater, and the host range is still unknown, even in Europe.

A new species of Rhabdias (Nematoda: Rhabdiasidae), a lung parasite of Pseudopaludicola pocoto (Anura: Leptodactylidae) from north-eastern Brazil: description and phylogenetic analyses

Rhabdias pocoto n. sp. is herein described from the lungs of the swamp frog Pseudopaludicola pocoto Magalhães, Loebmann, Nogueira, Kokubum, Baptista, Haddad & Garda, 2014, from the Caatinga biome in the state of Ceará, in north-eastern Brazil. The new species is characterized by a body that dilates posteriorly, six small lips (protuberances) and two rounded lateral expansions of cuticular inflation on the anterior end, each containing an amorphous gland-like structure inside and a short and conical tail. Additionally, molecular analysis and comparison of the partial mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase I sequence of R. pocoto n. sp. revealed genetic divergence between the new species and the sequences of Rhabdias spp. previously deposited in GenBank. Phylogenetic analysis grouped the new taxon into the R. pseudosphaerocephala species complex + R. glaurungi clade. The new discovery represents the 19th species of Rhabdias spp. described in the Neotropical region, the ninth in Brazil and the first species of Rhabdias found parasitizing South American frogs of the genus Pseudopaludicola, as well as the first Caatinga biome species of Rhabdias.

Rhabdias glaurungi sp. nov. (Nematoda: Rhabdiasidae), parasite of Scinax gr. ruber (Laurenti, 1768) (Anura: Hylidae), from the Brazilian Amazon

The genus Rhabdias Stiles & Hassal, 1905 includes about 83 species of nematodes parasitic in amphibians and reptiles worldwide. Herein, we describe Rhabdias glaurungi sp. nov. from the hylid frog Scinax gr. ruber (Laurenti, 1768) in the Gunma Ecological Park, Santa Bárbara municipality, state of Pará, Brazil. This species has six small lips, an inflated cuticle along the entire body and a cup-shaped buccal capsule with smooth internal surface of its anterior part and irregularly folded internal surface of its posterior part in apical view. From the 17 valid species recognized in the Neotropical realm, the new species can be distinguished by the number of lips, the morphology and size of its buccal capsule, as well as the extent and shape of its cuticular inflation; in addition, there are molecular differences. Sequences of the mitochondrial Cytochrome c Oxidase subunit I gene strongly support the status of this form as a separate species. Molecular phylogenetic analysis shows R. glaurungi sp. nov. nested within the R. pseudosphaerocephala Kuzmin, Tkach & Brooks, 2007 species complex. Rhabdias glaurungi sp. nov. is the second species of the genus described from hosts of the family Hylidae in the Neotropical realm. We conclude that the diversity of Rhabdias within the Neotropics is likely largely underestimated.

Description, biology and molecular characterisation of Serpentirhabdias moi n. sp. (Nematoda: Rhabdiasidae) from Chironius exoletus (Serpentes: Colubridae) in Brazil

A new species of the genus Serpentirhabdias Tkach, Kuzmin et Snyder, 2014, S. moi n. sp., is described from a colubroid snake Chironius exoletus from Caxiuanã National Forest, State of Pará, Brazil. The species is characterised by having a triangular oral opening, absence of the buccal capsule, presence of six minute onchia in the oesophastome, and excretory glands of approximately the same length as the oesophagus. These qualitative morphological characters, as well as some measurements, differentiate the new species from other Neotropical and Nearctic Serpentirhabdias spp. The morphological description of parasitic adults of S. moi n. sp. is complemented by the description of free-living stages including males, females, and infective larvae. Comparative analysis of partial sequences of cox1 and 12S mitochondrial genes strongly supported the status of S. moi n. sp. as a new species. Molecular phylogeny based on sequences of the nuclear DNA region spanning the 3' end of the 18S nuclear rRNA gene, ITS region (ITS1 + 5.8S + ITS2) and 5' end of the 28S gene supported monophyly of all rhabdiasid genera included in the analysis and placed the new species into the Serpentirhabdias clade as sister taxon to S. fuscovenosa.

Morphometric and phylogenetic analyses of Serpentirhabdias viperidicus n. sp. (Nematoda: Rhabdiasidae) from the lancehead snake Bothrops moojeni Hoge, 1966 (Reptilia: Serpentes: Viperidae) in Brazil

Serpentirhabdias viperidicus n. sp. (Nematoda: Rhabdiasidae) is described from the lungs of the ‘Brazilian lancehead’ Bothrops moojeni (Hoge, 1966) from the savannah in São Paulo State, Brazil. The new species is the eighth species of Serpentirhabdias described in the Neotropical region, and differs from other species mainly by a combination of characters: lips slightly notable, presence of fine striations at posterior ends, presence of two parallel lines with intercalated pores, a pore-shaped phasmid situated at the level of the anal aperture and another two in the posterior half of the tail. It is the first species of Serpentirhabdias reported in this snake host and the second species of this genus found parasitizing South American viperidian snakes. Molecular phylogenetic analysis using ribosomal (ITS and 28S partial) genes confirms Serpentirhabdias viperidicus n. sp. as a new species that clustered in the Serpentirhabdias clade, sister taxon to Serpentirhabdias fuscovenosa and Serpentirhabdias elaphe. This is the first description of Serpentirhabdias species from Brazil using molecular approaches and morphological characters to confirm the monophyly of this recent genus.

Ecological factors responsible for the geographic distribution of Rhabdias joaquinensis: where do lungworms infect anurans in nature?

The lungworm Rhabdias joaquinensis (Nematoda: Rhabdiasidae) is a common parasite of anurans in eastern Nebraska, yet absent from the same hosts in western Nebraska. This study investigated the ecology of the lungworm's free-living stages that reside in host feces and surrounding soils to establish the worm's free-living niche in eastern Nebraska. Using a comparative method, this study also investigated the absence of lungworms in western Nebraska's Sandhills. Soil composition, moisture, and temperature were experimentally varied in the laboratory to assess their effects on juvenile development and survival. Field mesocosm and host defecation experiments were used to determine where in nature lungworms survive and eventually infect frogs and toads and to discover if vegetation facilitates lungworm transmission to hosts. The results found loam soils were amenable to lungworm development, whereas soils with high clay or sand content produced few infective lungworms. Soil moisture <50 % did not support lungworm development. Infective juveniles successfully developed between 5 and 35 °C, albeit at different rates, whereas only a limited number of non-infective worms developed at 40 °C. Field studies found that shoreline environments supported lungworm development, and the majority of lungworm infections appear to occur within a zone of infection adjacent to shorelines in eastern Nebraska. The prevalence in vegetation mesocosms was 100 %, and a significantly higher mean abundance was found in toads from containers with vegetation than without. Overall, these experiments suggest that the spatial distribution of R. joaquinensis in Nebraska is constrained by the worm's ability to survive and reproduce in a soil matrix.

Mating dynamics in a nematode with three sexes and its evolutionary implications

Nematodes have diverse reproductive strategies, which make them ideal subjects for comparative studies to address how mating systems evolve. Here we present the sex ratios and mating dynamics of the free-living nematode Rhabditis sp. SB347, in which males, females and hermaphrodites co-exist. The three sexes are produced by both selfing and outcrossing, and females tend to appear early in a mother’s progeny. Males prefer mating with females over hermaphrodites, which our results suggest is related to the female-specific production of the sex pheromones ascr#1 and ascr#9. We discuss the parallels between this system and that of parasitic nematodes that exhibit alternation between uniparental and biparental reproduction.

Quantifying anuran microhabitat use to infer the potential for parasite transmission between invasive cane toads and two species of Australian native frogs

Parasites that are carried by invasive species can infect native taxa, with devastating consequences. In Australia, invading cane toads (Rhinella marina) carry lungworm parasites (Rhabdias pseudosphaerocephala) that (based on previous laboratory studies) can infect native treefrogs (Litoria caerulea and L. splendida). To assess the potential of parasite transmission from the invader to the native species (and from one infected native frog to another), we used surveys and radiotelemetry to quantify anuran microhabitat use, and proximity to other anurans, in two sites in tropical Australia. Unsurprisingly, treefrogs spent much of their time off the ground (especially by day, and in undisturbed forests) but terrestrial activity was common at night (especially in anthropogenically modified habitats). Microhabitat overlap between cane toads and frogs was generally low, except at night in disturbed areas, whereas overlap between the two frog species was high. The situations of highest overlap, and hence with the greatest danger of parasite transmission, involve aggregations of frogs within crevices by day, and use of open ground by all three anuran species at night. Overall, microhabitat divergence between toads and frogs should reduce, but not eliminate, the transmission of lungworms from invasive toads to vulnerable native frogs.

Molecular insight into systematics, host associations, life cycles and geographic distribution of the nematode family Rhabdiasidae

Rhabdiasidae Railliet, 1915 is a globally distributed group of up to 100 known species of nematodes parasitic in amphibians and reptiles. This work presents the results of a molecular phylogenetic analysis of 36 species of Rhabdiasidae from reptiles and amphibians from six continents. New DNA sequences encompassing partial 18S rDNA, ITS1, 5.8S rDNA, ITS2 and partial 28S rDNA regions of nuclear ribosomal DNA were obtained from 27 species and pre-existing sequences for nine species were incorporated. The broad taxonomic, host and geographical coverage of the specimens allowed us to address long-standing questions in rhabdiasid systematics, evolution, geographic distribution, and patterns of host association. Our analysis demonstrated that rhabdiasids parasitic in snakes are an independent genus sister to the rest of the Rhabdiasidae, a status supported by life cycle data. Based on the combined evidence of molecular phylogeny, morphology and life cycle characteristics, a new genus Serpentirhabdias gen. nov. with the type species Serpentirhabdias elaphe (Sharpilo, 1976) comb. nov. is established. The phylogeny supports the monophyly of Entomelas Travassos, 1930, Pneumonema Johnston, 1916 and the largest genus of the family, Rhabdias Stiles and Hassall, 1905. DNA sequence comparisons demonstrate the presence of more than one species in the previously monotypic Pneumonema from Australian scincid lizards. The distribution of some morphological characters in the genus Rhabdias shows little consistency within the phylogenetic tree topology, in particular the apical structures widely used in rhabdiasid systematics. Our data suggest that some of the characters, while valuable for species differentiation, are not appropriate for differentiation among higher taxa and are of limited phylogenetic utility. Rhabdias is the only genus with a cosmopolitan distribution, but some of the lineages within Rhabdias are distributed on a single continent or a group of adjacent zoogeographical regions. Serpentirhabdias, Entomelas and Pneumonema show rather strict specificity to their host groups. The evolution of the Rhabdiasidae clearly included multiple host switching events among different orders and families of amphibians as well as switching between amphibians and squamatan reptiles. Only a few smaller lineages of Rhabdias demonstrate relatively strict associations with a certain group of hosts.

Co-occurrence of Haematoloechus complexus and Rhabdias joaquinensis in the plains leopard frog from Nebraska

Species of Haematoloechus and Rhabdias both are ubiquitous lung parasites of frogs, yet surprisingly little research has been conducted on the interactions between these worms. In a small Nebraska stream, 256 Rhabdias joaquinensis and 225 Haematoloechus complexus were found in the lungs of Lithobates (=Rana) blairi. Thirty-six of the 44 (82%) frogs were co-infected with H. complexus and R. joaquinensis whereas 5 (11%) frogs were infected with only 1 species and 3 (7%) frogs were uninfected. Tests for association between H. complexus and R. joaquinensis found a significant positive relationship between the 2 parasites. Significant positive relationships in intensity of infection were found when both lungs were combined but not when lungs were considered individually. Tests for association between H. complexus and R. joaquinensis found no relationship between the worms in the anterior and posterior portions of the lungs. These data suggest that H. complexus and R. joaquinensis do not competitively exclude each other from the lungs of L. blairi in southeastern Nebraska.