1
|
Torres-García MT, Oyonarte C, Cabello J, Guirado E, Rodríguez-Lozano B, Salinas-Bonillo MJ. The potential of groundwater-dependent ecosystems to enhance soil biological activity and soil fertility in drylands. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 826:154111. [PMID: 35218827 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.154111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2021] [Revised: 01/28/2022] [Accepted: 02/20/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Water availability controls the functioning of dryland ecosystems, driving a patchy vegetation distribution, unequal nutrient availability, soil respiration in pulses, and limited productivity. Groundwater-dependent ecosystems (GDEs) are acknowledged to be decoupled from precipitation, since their vegetation relies on groundwater sources. Despite their relevance to enhance productivity in drylands, our understanding of how different components of GDEs interconnect (i.e., soil, vegetation, water) remains limited. We studied the GDE dominated by the deep-rooted phreatophyte Ziziphus lotus, a winter-deciduous shrub adapted to arid conditions along the Mediterranean basin. We aimed to disentangle whether the groundwater connection established by Z. lotus will foster soil biological activity and therefore soil fertility in drylands. We assessed (1) soil and vegetation dynamics over seasons (soil CO2 efflux and plant activity), (2) the effect of the patchy distribution on soil quality (properties and nutrient availability), and soil biological activity (microbial biomass and mineralization rates) as essential elements of biogeochemical cycles, and (3) the implications for preserving GDEs and their biogeochemical processes under climate change effects. We found that soil and vegetation dynamics respond to water availability. Whereas soil biological activity promptly responded to precipitation events, vegetation functioning relies on less superficial water and responded on different time scales. Soil quality was higher under the vegetation patches, as was soil biological activity. Our findings highlight the importance of groundwater connections and phreatophytic vegetation to increase litter inputs and organic matter into the soils, which in turn enhances soil quality and decomposition processes in drylands. However, biogeochemical processes are jeopardized in GDEs by climate change effects and land degradation due to the dependence of soil activity on: (1) precipitation for activation, and (2) phreatophytic vegetation for substrate accumulation. Therefore, desertification might modify biogeochemical cycles by disrupting key ecosystem processes such as soil microbial activity, organic matter mineralization, and plant productivity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- M Trinidad Torres-García
- Department of Biology and Geology, University of Almería, Spain; Andalusian Centre for the Monitoring and Assessment of Global Change (CAESCG), University of Almería, Almería, Spain.
| | - Cecilio Oyonarte
- Andalusian Centre for the Monitoring and Assessment of Global Change (CAESCG), University of Almería, Almería, Spain; Department of Agronomy, University of Almería, Almería, Spain
| | - Javier Cabello
- Department of Biology and Geology, University of Almería, Spain; Andalusian Centre for the Monitoring and Assessment of Global Change (CAESCG), University of Almería, Almería, Spain
| | - Emilio Guirado
- Andalusian Centre for the Monitoring and Assessment of Global Change (CAESCG), University of Almería, Almería, Spain; Instituto Multidisciplinar para el Estudio del Medio "Ramón Margalef", University of Alicante, Alicante, Spain
| | | | - M Jacoba Salinas-Bonillo
- Department of Biology and Geology, University of Almería, Spain; Andalusian Centre for the Monitoring and Assessment of Global Change (CAESCG), University of Almería, Almería, Spain
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Dusza Y, Sanchez-Cañete EP, Galliard JFL, Ferrière R, Chollet S, Massol F, Hansart A, Juarez S, Dontsova K, Haren JV, Troch P, Pavao-Zuckerman MA, Hamerlynck E, Barron-Gafford GA. Biotic soil-plant interaction processes explain most of hysteric soil CO 2 efflux response to temperature in cross-factorial mesocosm experiment. Sci Rep 2020; 10:905. [PMID: 31969580 PMCID: PMC6976568 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-55390-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2018] [Accepted: 11/26/2019] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Ecosystem carbon flux partitioning is strongly influenced by poorly constrained soil CO2 efflux (Fsoil). Simple model applications (Arrhenius and Q10) do not account for observed diel hysteresis between Fsoil and soil temperature. How this hysteresis emerges and how it will respond to variation in vegetation or soil moisture remains unknown. We used an ecosystem-level experimental system to independently control potential abiotic and biotic drivers of the Fsoil-T hysteresis. We hypothesized a principally biological cause for the hysteresis. Alternatively, Fsoil hysteresis is primarily driven by thermal convection through the soil profile. We conducted experiments under normal, fluctuating diurnal soil temperatures and under conditions where we held soil temperature near constant. We found (i) significant and nearly equal amplitudes of hysteresis regardless of soil temperature regime, and (ii) the amplitude of hysteresis was most closely tied to baseline rates of Fsoil, which were mostly driven by photosynthetic rates. Together, these findings suggest a more biologically-driven mechanism associated with photosynthate transport in yielding the observed patterns of soil CO2 efflux being out of sync with soil temperature. These findings should be considered on future partitioning models of ecosystem respiration.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yann Dusza
- Centre de recherche en écologie expérimentale et prédictive (CEREEP-Ecotron IleDeFrance), Département de biologie, Ecole normale supérieure, CNRS, PSL University, 77140, St-Pierre-les-Nemours, France.
| | | | - Jean-François Le Galliard
- Centre de recherche en écologie expérimentale et prédictive (CEREEP-Ecotron IleDeFrance), Département de biologie, Ecole normale supérieure, CNRS, PSL University, 77140, St-Pierre-les-Nemours, France
- Sorbonne Université, CNRS, Institut d'Écologie et des Sciences de l'Environnement de Paris (iEES-Paris), Faculté des Sciences et Ingénierie, 75005, Paris, France
| | - Régis Ferrière
- Institut de Biologie de l'Ens (IBENS), Département de biologie, Ecole normale supérieure, CNRS, PSL University, 75005, Paris, France
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona, 85721, United States
| | - Simon Chollet
- Centre de recherche en écologie expérimentale et prédictive (CEREEP-Ecotron IleDeFrance), Département de biologie, Ecole normale supérieure, CNRS, PSL University, 77140, St-Pierre-les-Nemours, France
| | - Florent Massol
- Centre de recherche en écologie expérimentale et prédictive (CEREEP-Ecotron IleDeFrance), Département de biologie, Ecole normale supérieure, CNRS, PSL University, 77140, St-Pierre-les-Nemours, France
| | - Amandine Hansart
- Centre de recherche en écologie expérimentale et prédictive (CEREEP-Ecotron IleDeFrance), Département de biologie, Ecole normale supérieure, CNRS, PSL University, 77140, St-Pierre-les-Nemours, France
| | - Sabrina Juarez
- Centre de recherche en écologie expérimentale et prédictive (CEREEP-Ecotron IleDeFrance), Département de biologie, Ecole normale supérieure, CNRS, PSL University, 77140, St-Pierre-les-Nemours, France
| | - Katerina Dontsova
- Biosphere 2, Office of Research, Development, & Innovation, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona, 85721, United States
| | - Joost van Haren
- Biosphere 2, Office of Research, Development, & Innovation, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona, 85721, United States
| | - Peter Troch
- Biosphere 2, Office of Research, Development, & Innovation, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona, 85721, United States
- Department of Hydrology & Atmospheric Sciences, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona, 85721, United States
| | - Mitchell A Pavao-Zuckerman
- Department of Environmental Science and Technology, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland, 20742, United States
| | - Erik Hamerlynck
- US Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service, Eastern Oregon Agricultural Research Center, Burns, OR, 97720, United States
| | - Greg A Barron-Gafford
- Biosphere 2, Office of Research, Development, & Innovation, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona, 85721, United States
- School of Geography & Development, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona, 85721, United States
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Luketich AM, Papuga SA, Crimmins MA. Ecohydrology of urban trees under passive and active irrigation in a semiarid city. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0224804. [PMID: 31703086 PMCID: PMC6839877 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0224804] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2019] [Accepted: 10/22/2019] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
The infiltration of stormwater runoff for use by urban trees is a major co-benefit of green infrastructure for desert cities with limited water resources. However, the effects of this passive irrigation versus regular, controlled moisture inputs, or active irrigation, is largely unquantified. We monitored the ecohydrology of urban mesquite trees (Prosopis spp.) under these contrasting irrigation regimes in semiarid Tucson, AZ. Measurements included soil moisture, sap velocity, canopy greenness, and leaf-area index. We expected both irrigation types to provide additional deep (>20 cm) soil moisture compared to natural conditions, and that trees would depend on this deep moisture for transpiration and phenological activity. Results show that active irrigation supported higher soil moisture throughout the study than passive irrigation. Passive irrigation only provided additional deep moisture when green infrastructure features received impervious runoff from a city street. Sap velocity and greenness were similar under both irrigation types, outside of isolated periods of time. These differences occurred during the extremely wet summer 2017 when passively irrigated trees exhibited a greenness peak, and the dry conditions of spring when actively irrigated trees had higher sap flow and relative greenness. Finally, it was not determined that deep soil moisture had a stronger relationship with mesquite productivity than shallow moisture, but both relationships were stronger in the spring, before summer rains. This study aims to contribute empirical observations of green infrastructure performance for urban watershed management.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anthony M. Luketich
- Department of Biology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, New Mexico, United States of America
- School of Natural Resources and the Environment, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Shirley A. Papuga
- School of Natural Resources and the Environment, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona, United States of America
- Department of Geology, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan, United States of America
| | - Michael A. Crimmins
- Department of Environmental Science, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona, United States of America
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Barron-Gafford GA, Sanchez-Cañete EP, Minor RL, Hendryx SM, Lee E, Sutter LF, Tran N, Parra E, Colella T, Murphy PC, Hamerlynck EP, Kumar P, Scott RL. Impacts of hydraulic redistribution on grass-tree competition vs facilitation in a semi-arid savanna. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2017; 215:1451-1461. [PMID: 28737219 DOI: 10.1111/nph.14693] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2017] [Accepted: 05/28/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
A long-standing ambition in ecosystem science has been to understand the relationship between ecosystem community composition, structure and function. Differential water use and hydraulic redistribution have been proposed as one mechanism that might allow for the coexistence of overstory woody plants and understory grasses. Here, we investigated how patterns of hydraulic redistribution influence overstory and understory ecophysiological function and how patterns vary across timescales of an individual precipitation event to an entire growing season. To this end, we linked measures of sap flux within lateral and tap roots, leaf-level photosynthesis, ecosystem-level carbon exchange and soil carbon dioxide efflux with local meteorology data. The hydraulic redistribution regime was characterized predominantly by hydraulic descent relative to hydraulic lift. We found only a competitive interaction between the overstory and understory, regardless of temporal time scale. Overstory trees used nearly all water lifted by the taproot to meet their own transpirational needs. Our work suggests that alleviating water stress is not the reason we find grasses growing in the understory of woody plants; rather, other stresses, such as excessive light and temperature, are being ameliorated. As such, both the two-layer model and stress gradient hypothesis need to be refined to account for this coexistence in drylands.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Greg A Barron-Gafford
- School of Geography & Development, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, 85721, USA
- College of Science, Biosphere 2, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, 85721, USA
- School of Natural Resources & the Environment, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, 85721, USA
| | - Enrique P Sanchez-Cañete
- School of Geography & Development, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, 85721, USA
- College of Science, Biosphere 2, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, 85721, USA
- Centro Andaluz de Medio Ambiente (IISTA-CEAMA), Granada, 18006, Spain
| | - Rebecca L Minor
- School of Geography & Development, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, 85721, USA
- College of Science, Biosphere 2, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, 85721, USA
| | - Sean M Hendryx
- School of Natural Resources & the Environment, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, 85721, USA
| | - Esther Lee
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, 61801, USA
| | - Leland F Sutter
- School of Geography & Development, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, 85721, USA
- School of Natural Resources & the Environment, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, 85721, USA
- Southwest Watershed Research Center, USDA-ARS, Tucson, AZ, 85719, USA
| | - Newton Tran
- School of Environmental Science, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, N1G 2W1, Canada
| | - Elizabeth Parra
- College of Science, Biosphere 2, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, 85721, USA
| | - Tony Colella
- School of Geography & Development, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, 85721, USA
| | - Patrick C Murphy
- School of Geography & Development, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, 85721, USA
| | - Erik P Hamerlynck
- Eastern Oregon Agricultural Research Center, USDA-ARS, Burns, OR, 97720, USA
| | - Praveen Kumar
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, 61801, USA
| | - Russell L Scott
- Southwest Watershed Research Center, USDA-ARS, Tucson, AZ, 85719, USA
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Xu Z, Hou Y, Zhang L, Liu T, Zhou G. Ecosystem responses to warming and watering in typical and desert steppes. Sci Rep 2016; 6:34801. [PMID: 27721480 PMCID: PMC5056398 DOI: 10.1038/srep34801] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2016] [Accepted: 09/20/2016] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Global warming is projected to continue, leading to intense fluctuations in precipitation and heat waves and thereby affecting the productivity and the relevant biological processes of grassland ecosystems. Here, we determined the functional responses to warming and altered precipitation in both typical and desert steppes. The results showed that watering markedly increased the aboveground net primary productivity (ANPP) in a typical steppe during a drier year and in a desert steppe over two years, whereas warming manipulation had no significant effect. The soil microbial biomass carbon (MBC) and the soil respiration (SR) were increased by watering in both steppes, but the SR was significantly decreased by warming in the desert steppe only. The inorganic nitrogen components varied irregularly, with generally lower levels in the desert steppe. The belowground traits of soil total organic carbon (TOC) and the MBC were more closely associated with the ANPP in the desert than in the typical steppes. The results showed that the desert steppe with lower productivity may respond strongly to precipitation changes, particularly with warming, highlighting the positive effect of adding water with warming. Our study implies that the habitat- and year-specific responses to warming and watering should be considered when predicting an ecosystem's functional responses under climate change scenarios.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Zhenzhu Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Vegetation and Environmental Change, Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100093, China
| | - Yanhui Hou
- State Key Laboratory of Vegetation and Environmental Change, Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100093, China
| | - Lihua Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Vegetation and Environmental Change, Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100093, China
| | - Tao Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Vegetation and Environmental Change, Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100093, China
- State Key Laboratory of Severe Weather, Chinese Academy of Meteorological Sciences, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Guangsheng Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Vegetation and Environmental Change, Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100093, China
- State Key Laboratory of Severe Weather, Chinese Academy of Meteorological Sciences, Beijing 100081, China
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Scott RL, Huxman TE, Barron-Gafford GA, Darrel Jenerette G, Young JM, Hamerlynck EP. When vegetation change alters ecosystem water availability. GLOBAL CHANGE BIOLOGY 2014; 20:2198-210. [PMID: 24777485 DOI: 10.1111/gcb.12511] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2013] [Accepted: 11/27/2013] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
The combined effects of vegetation and climate change on biosphere-atmosphere water vapor (H2 O) and carbon dioxide (CO2 ) exchanges are expected to vary depending, in part, on how biotic activity is controlled by and alters water availability. This is particularly important when a change in ecosystem composition alters the fractional covers of bare soil, grass, and woody plants so as to influence the accessibility of shallower vs. deeper soil water pools. To study this, we compared 5 years of eddy covariance measurements of H2 O and CO2 fluxes over a riparian grassland, shrubland, and woodland. In comparison with the surrounding upland region, groundwater access at the riparian sites increased net carbon uptake (NEP) and evapotranspiration (ET), which were sustained over more of the year. Among the sites, the grassland used less of the stable groundwater resource, and increasing woody plant density decoupled NEP and ET from incident precipitation (P), resulting in greater exchange rates that were less variable year to year. Despite similar gross patterns, how groundwater accessibility affected NEP was more complex than ET. The grassland had higher respiration (Reco ) costs. Thus, while it had similar ET and gross carbon uptake (GEP) to the shrubland, grassland NEP was substantially less. Also, grassland carbon fluxes were more variable due to occasional flooding at the site, which both stimulated and inhibited NEP depending upon phenology. Woodland NEP was large, but surprisingly similar to the less mature, sparse shrubland, even while having much greater GEP. Woodland Reco was greater than the shrubland and responded strongly and positively to P, which resulted in a surprising negative NEP response to P. This is likely due to the large accumulation of carbon aboveground and in the surface soil. These long-term observations support the strong role that water accessibility can play when determining the consequences of ecosystem vegetation change.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Russell L Scott
- Southwest Watershed Research Center, USDA-ARS, Tucson, 85716, AZ, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
7
|
Barron-Gafford GA, Cable JM, Bentley LP, Scott RL, Huxman TE, Jenerette GD, Ogle K. Quantifying the timescales over which exogenous and endogenous conditions affect soil respiration. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2014; 202:442-454. [PMID: 24417567 DOI: 10.1111/nph.12675] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2013] [Accepted: 11/30/2013] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Understanding how exogenous and endogenous factors and above-ground-below-ground linkages modulate carbon dynamics is difficult because of the influences of antecedent conditions. For example, there are variable lags between above-ground assimilation and below-ground efflux, and the duration of antecedent periods are often arbitrarily assigned. Nonetheless, developing models linking above- and below-ground processes is crucial for estimating current and future carbon dynamics. We collected data on leaf-level photosynthesis (Asat ) and soil respiration (Rsoil ) in different microhabitats (under shrubs vs under bunchgrasses) in the Sonoran Desert. We evaluated timescales over which endogenous and exogenous factors control Rsoil by analyzing data in the context of a semimechanistic temperature-response model of Rsoil that incorporated effects of antecedent exogenous (soil water) and endogenous (Asat ) conditions. For both microhabitats, antecedent soil water and Asat significantly affected Rsoil , but Rsoil under shrubs was more sensitive to Asat than that under bunchgrasses. Photosynthetic rates 1 and 3 d before the Rsoil measurement were most important in determining current-day Rsoil under bunchgrasses and shrubs, respectively, indicating a significant lag effect. Endogenous and exogenous controls are critical drivers of Rsoil , but the relative importance and the timescale over which each factor affects Rsoil depends on above-ground vegetation and ecosystem structure characteristics.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Greg A Barron-Gafford
- School of Geography & Development, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, 85721, USA
- B2 Earthscience, Biosphere 2, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, 85721, USA
| | - Jessica M Cable
- International Arctic Research Center, University of Alaska Fairbanks, Fairbanks, AK, 99775, USA
| | - Lisa Patrick Bentley
- Environmental Change Institute, University of Oxford, Oxford University Centre for the Environment, South Parks Road, Oxford, OX1 3QY, UK
| | - Russell L Scott
- Southwest Watershed Research Center, USDA-ARS, Tucson, AZ, 85719, USA
| | - Travis E Huxman
- Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Irvine, CA, 92697, USA
- Center for Environmental Biology, University of California, Irvine, CA, 92697, USA
| | - G Darrel Jenerette
- Department of Botany and Plant Sciences, University of California Riverside, Riverside, CA, USA
| | - Kiona Ogle
- School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Liu Y, Liu S, Wang J, Zhu X, Zhang Y, Liu X. Variation in soil respiration under the tree canopy in a temperate mixed forest, central China, under different soil water conditions. Ecol Res 2013. [DOI: 10.1007/s11284-013-1110-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
|
9
|
Cable JM, Barron-Gafford GA, Ogle K, Pavao-Zuckerman M, Scott RL, Williams DG, Huxman TE. Shrub encroachment alters sensitivity of soil respiration to temperature and moisture. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2012. [DOI: 10.1029/2011jg001757] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
|
10
|
Jenerette GD, Scott RL, Barron-Gafford GA, Huxman TE. Gross primary production variability associated with meteorology, physiology, leaf area, and water supply in contrasting woodland and grassland semiarid riparian ecosystems. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2009. [DOI: 10.1029/2009jg001074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
|