"Do I have to be good all day? The timing of delayed reinforcement as a factor in generalization

An Operant Pursuit of Generalization - Republished Article

We outline some principles and tactics which are recommended as likely to facilitate the occurrence of generalization and maintenance in programs of clinical importance. In general, clinicians and researchers would do well to implement and analyze procedures that follow the generalization programming principles of exploiting current functional contingencies, training diversely, and incorporating functional mediators. More specifically, the tactical armamentarium should include contacting natural consequences, recruiting natural consequences, modifying maladaptive consequences, reinforcing occurrences of generalization, using sufficient stimulus exemplars, using sufficient response exemplars, making antecedents less discriminable, making consequences less discriminable, incorporating common salient physical stimuli, incorporating common salient social stimuli, incorporating self-mediated physical stimuli, and incorporating self-mediated verbal and covert stimuli.

Reinforcement Delay and Across-Setting Generalization in an Intermediate School Special Class

This study investigated the effect of delayed reinforcement on the across-setting generalization of behaviour change. Eight children aged between 11 and 13, members of a special class at an intermediate school, served as subjects. Off-task behaviour was monitored during two classroom lessons: the contingent lesson, performance in which determined subsequent reinforcement, and the generalization lesson, in which no reinforcement contingencies were provided. Two forms of delayed reinforcement: early — delivered immediately following the setting in which the critical behaviour occurred — and late — delivered only after several other settings had been encountered — were sequentially presented in an ABCB design. Off-task behaviour decreased under both reinforcement conditions. However generalization was only evident when the late delayed reinforcement was operating. Results suggest that a temporal delay in the delivery of reinforcement is more likely to lead to generalization of behaviour change than is the delivery of reinforcement immediately following the contingent lesson.

Toward an explicit analysis of generalization: A stimulus control interpretation

Producing generality of treatment effects to new settings has been a critical concern for applied behavior analysts, but a systematic and reliable means of producing generality has yet to be provided. We argue that the principles of stimulus control and reinforcement underlie the production of most generalized effects; therefore, we suggest interpreting generalization programming in terms of stimulus control. The generalization programming procedures identified by Stokes and Baer (1977) are discussed in terms of both the stimulus control tactics explicitly identified and those that may be operating but are not explicitly identified. Our interpretation clarifies the critical components of Stokes and Baer's procedures and places greater emphasis on planning for generalization as a part of training procedures.

Establishing operations, cognition, and emotion

In this paper we argue that behavior analysts have tended to neglect the study of important aspects of complex human behavior, including cognition and emotion. This relative neglect has been costly in terms of mainstream psychology's perception of the field of behavior analysis and in terms of our ability to provide a more thorough account of human behavior. Observations and findings from the clinical context are offered as examples of behavior that are not readily explained by the three-term contingency, and we argue that an adequate account of these behaviors must include principles derived from recent behavior-analytic work, in particular a better understanding of the short- and long-term effects of establishing operations. The concept of the establishing operation and its implications for understanding complex human behavior are discussed.

A review of correspondence training: Suggestions for a revival

Doing what is promised or accurately reporting what has been done increases with correspondence training. Early research showed that training produced positive correlations between saying and doing, but did not always produce useful generalized correspondence to new, untrained say-do sequences (Baer, 1990). Recent research (reviewed here in detail) questioned early procedures and introduced new issues: functional criteria, functional verbal responses, baseline measures, and response chains in correspondence training. Correspondence research was almost abandoned after 1992. This review suggests new procedures and directions to revive this important research area. Specific suggestions are to combine correspondence procedures with similar features from ongoing research in compliance and self-instruction; consider important guidelines for future research derived from recent studies; consider interactions between applied and basic research with correspondence issues; compare correspondence between different participant cohorts; examine the use of descriptive and functional terms; examine punishment procedures; and provide a behavioral analysis of the relations between verbal and nonverbal behaviors related to correspondence.

A behaviorist's response to the report of the national commission on excellence in education

The National Commission on Excellence in Education was charged with the responsibility for examining the quality of education in America. Its report, "A Nation at Risk" (1983), contained a set of alarming facts about the status of American education. These were followed by a set of five major recommendations for improving the situation. They related to (1) content, (2) standards and expectations, (3) time, (4) teaching, and (5) leadership and support. The present paper examines each of the set of recommendations from a behavior analytic perspective. It notes what the field of behavior analysis can say on the subject now; what it potentially might address and remediate at this time; what it might explore and predict; and in general what it can do to make a difference. Behavior analysis has made many important discoveries that should be communicated to educators and the public, and it has tools and concepts for further contributing toward the improvement of education.

Setting events in applied behavior analysis: Toward a conceptual and methodological expansion

The contributions of applied behavior analysis as a natural science approach to the study of human behavior are acknowledged. However, it is also argued that applied behavior analysis has provided limited access to the full range of environmental events that influence socially significant behavior. Recent changes in applied behavior analysis to include analysis of side effects and social validation represent ways in which the traditional applied behavior analysis conceptual and methodological model has been profitably expanded. A third area of expansion, the analysis of setting events, is proposed by the authors. The historical development of setting events as a behavior influence concept is traced. Modifications of the basic applied behavior analysis methodology and conceptual systems that seem necessary to setting event analysis are discussed and examples of descriptive and experimental setting event analyses are presented.

Delayed reinforcement as an indiscriminable contingency in verbal/nonverbal correspondence training

We investigated the programming of generalization and maintenance of correspondence between verbal and nonverbal behavior in a preschool setting. Four children participated in a series of multiple-baseline designs. In Experiment 1, delayed reinforcement of verbal behavior effectively controlled maintenance of correspondence with previously trained responses and also resulted in generalization of correspondence to one untrained response. As the latter effect was limited, Experiment 2 was a further assessment of the effects of delayed reinforcement of generalization of correspondence to untrained responses, and consistent generalization was shown. Experiment 2 also showed that generalization, if lost, could be recovered through use of "booster training," in which the original contingencies were reinstated for a brief period. Experiment 3 provided replications, with two additional children, of the effects of delayed reinforcement on maintenance of correspondence. Results are discussed in terms of using delayed reinforcement as an indiscriminable contingency.

Generalization in a child's oppositional behavior across home and school settings

A 9-year-old clinic-referred boy, his mother, and his teacher were observed in 38 home and 38 school sessions on the same days. Categories of the boy's oppositional behavior and the inappropriate social attention of his mother and teacher were graphed to visually inspect changes during baseline, a parent-training phase, a follow-up phase, and a final parent-training booster phase. Parent-training phases produced reductions in the mother's inappropriate attention and in the boy's oppositional behavior, whereas the follow-up and baseline phases were associated with higher rates of these categories. Generalization occurred in the school across these home phases, as seen in the increase in rates of the boy's problem behavior, despite the lack of change in his teacher's attention. Correlational analyses of proportion scores reflecting the boy's home-school oppositional behavior and mother-teacher social attention suggested his responsiveness to relative changes in adult social contingencies across settings.

Treatment of maladaptive behavior in acquired brain injury: remedial approaches in postacute settings

This article describes remedial behavior therapy approaches for the treatment of maladaptive behavioral sequelae to an acquired brain injury (ABI). Remedial approaches are sophisticated and nonintrusive treatment strategies that involve teaching the individual skills or capacities to manage difficult life circumstances. Functional equivalence is one major category of remedial intervention and involves the determination of the behavioral function of the problem behavior and the teaching of an adaptive alternative response or skill cluster that provides the individual with efficient access to that function. Errorless remediation is a second category and entails teaching the individual to tolerate situations associated with problem behavior through hierarchical exposure to increasingly difficult conditions and reinforcement for successful management of those conditions.

Designing interventions that include delayed reinforcement: implications of recent laboratory research

The search for robust and durable interventions in everyday situations typically involves the use of delayed reinforcers, sometimes delivered well after a target behavior occurs. Integrating the findings from laboratory research on delayed reinforcement can contribute to the design and analysis of those applied interventions. As illustrations, we examine articles from the Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior that analyzed delayed reinforcement with respect to response allocation (A. M. Williams & Lattal, 1999), stimulus chaining (B. A. Williams, 1999), and self-control (Jackson & Hackenberg, 1996). These studies help to clarify the conditions under which delayed reinforcement (a) exercises control of behavior, (b) entails conditioned reinforcement, and (c) displaces the effects of immediate reinforcement. The research has applied implications, including the development of positive social behavior and teaching people to make adaptive choices.

DESCRIPTORS

delayed reinforcement, response allocation, stimulus chains, self-control, integration of basic and applied research

Developing a technology for the use of operant extinction in clinical settings: an examination of basic and applied research

Extinction of operant behavior, which involves terminating the reinforcement contingency that maintains a response, is important to the development, generalization, and reduction of behavior in clinical settings. We review basic and applied research findings on variables that influence the direct and indirect effects of extinction and discuss the potential value of a general technology for the use of extinction. We suggest that current research findings are not sufficient for the development of a comprehensive, applied technology of extinction and provide extensive guidelines for further studies on factors that may affect the course of extinction in clinical settings.

"What did you say?" Using review of tape-recorded interactions to increase social acknowledgments by trainees in a community-based vocational program

Dana and Rick, two adults with developmental disabilities enrolled in a restaurant training program, had poor prospects for long-term employment because of inappropriate social behavior. They often made no response, mumbled inaudibly, or made a negative remark when spoken to by their supervisors or other employees. Each trainee's Individual Vocational Plan (IVP) included goals of prompt and polite acknowledgement of coworker initiations. Previous efforts to improve Dana and Rick's acknowledging behavior had been unsuccessful. Throughout the study, each trainee's responses to 20 verbal initiations by coworkers (i.e., requests, questions, corrective feedback, praise, and social comments) were recorded during each of two observation periods per workshift. Throughout one of the observation periods during the intervention phases, the trainees carried in their work aprons a small, audio cassette recorder that recorded their interactions with coworkers. The primary intervention consisted of a preworkshift meeting in which the trainee and experimenter reviewed five randomly selected interactions recorded during the previous day's shift. The review included self-evaluation, praise, corrective feedback, and role-play. A multiple baseline across subjects design showed each trainee acknowledged a greater number of coworker initiations as a function of the intervention. Each trainee also acknowledged more coworker initiations during the second observation period when the tape recorder was never worn. In a subsequent intervention phase, Dana reviewed her tape-recorded interactions prior to randomly selected shifts. Rick's acknowledgments increased to a socially valid level when the review procedure was supplemented with graphic feedback. Both trainees continued to acknowledge their coworkers' initiations at levels equal to nondisabled restaurant employees when they no longer wore the tape recorder during a final phase and during follow-up observations 4 to 8 weeks later.

Strategies and tactics for promoting generalization and maintenance of young children's social behavior

Employing a conceptual framework of generalization strategies proposed by Stokes and Osnes (1986), the authors selectively reviewed the research literature concerning interventions to improve young children's social behavior and strategies for promoting generalization and maintenance of young children's social responding. Three basic strategies are discussed: (a) taking advantage of natural communities of reinforcement, (b) training diversely, and (c) incorporating functional mediators, along with several accompanying tactics, to improve children's social interactions. Pragmatic recommendations for proactive programming of generalization and maintenance of young children's social behavior are included. In addition, the authors argue for the continued development of a technology (or technologies) of generalization and maintenance for young children's social competence interventions.

Effects of delayed reinforcement on infant vocalization rate

Three previous studies have failed to demonstrate conditioning in infants using a 3-s delay of reinforcement. The effects of a delayed reinforcement schedule on vocalization rates therefore were explored in a single-subject repeated-reversal experimental design for 3 4- to 6-month-old normally developing infants. Each infant received delayed social reinforcement from his or her parent for vocalizing. The comparison condition was a schedule of differential reinforcement of behavior other than vocalizations to control for elicitation by social stimulation. An operant level of infant vocalizations was the initial condition, after which the differential reinforcement schedule was implemented in an across-subjects multiple baseline design. Infants' vocalization rates increased above levels measured during differential reinforcement following onset of the delayed reinforcement condition. Also, vocalization rates decreased during differential reinforcement compared to operant levels. The successful use of delayed reinforcement schedules with infants in this study, as opposed to others, is discussed in terms of procedural differences among them.

Strategies to increase exercise-report correspondence by boys with moderate mental retardation: collateral changes in intention-exercise correspondence

Correspondence between verbal and nonverbal behavior in an exercise room was taught to 4 13-year-old boys diagnosed with moderate mental retardation. Participants were asked prior to each exercise session which exercise machine(s) they intended to use. No contingencies on stating intentions (promising) were applied. Following the exercise session, participants were asked to say (report) which machine(s) they had used. Following the baseline condition, do-report correspondence training was introduced sequentially across participants. During do-report correspondence training, accurate reporting was reinforced. High rates of both do-report and promise-do correspondence were observed. Data were analyzed via a multiple baseline across subjects design and contingency-space analysis. Results are discussed with regard to observed changes in promise-do correspondence subsequent to observed changes in do-report correspondence.

Maintaining performance of autistic clients in community settings with delayed contingencies

To facilitate the classroom and workshop integration of three autistic clients, we examined the feasibility of teaching them to respond appropriately without the continual presence of specially trained treatment providers. Within a multiple baseline design, a 4-step treatment process was implemented to promote durable responsive performance. Results indicated that the therapist could be removed from the treatment environment and that appropriate behavior could be successfully maintained in community settings with only infrequent and delayed contingencies.

The potential of correspondence training for facilitating generalisation of social skills

Recent research suggests that the effects of social skills training programmes are often not evident outside the training setting. Correspondence training has been advocated as a means of overcoming this problem, although few studies have demonstrated its effectiveness. Three intellectually handicapped adults were given social skills training. At other times, generalisation was tested during conversations with staff. Subsequent to mastery in the social skills training setting, behaviours that did not occur at criterion in the generalisation setting were selected for correspondence training. After correspondence training was introduced, targetted behaviours increased in frequency in the generalisation setting. These increases were maintained during follow-up sessions, which took place 1 month after the training programme ceased. The effects of correspondence training are examined in the context of previous reinforcement history, accuracy of reporting, and verification of performance in unobserved settings.

Increasing the independent responding of autistic children with unpredictable supervision

We investigated the role of predictable versus unpredictable supervision on the independent task responding of three autistic children. In a predictable supervision condition, the therapist was present in the setting for a regular period of time and then was absent for the remainder of the session. In an unpredictable supervision condition, the therapist's presence was scheduled on a random, intermittent, and unpredictable basis throughout the session. The multiple baseline analysis showed that the unpredictable supervision produced much higher levels of on-task responding during the therapist's absence for all three children. Analysis of work completed during the therapist's absence also favored the unpredictable supervision condition. The results are discussed in relation to the literature on generalization and educational practice.

Training prosocial behaviors to young children: an analysis of reciprocity with untrained peers

We examined the effects of a social skills training package on the play behaviors of three young girls. Two children were taught to invite their peers to play and to use social amenities during their conversations with other children. A combined reversal and multiple baseline across responses design demonstrated that both children directed more social behaviors to their classroom peers after training and that these two children's play invitations were maintained in the later absence of experimental contingencies. In addition, both target children received a greater number of play invitations from their peers during the free play periods. In contrast, a third child's play invitations were not reciprocated by peers; her invitations subsequently decreased in rate after training was discontinued. An interdependent group contingency produced a reciprocal exchange of invitations between this child and her classroom peers. A reversal design demonstrated partial maintenance of subject-peer exchanges after the group intervention was discontinued. The results obtained with the three target children suggest that peer reciprocity may facilitate the maintenance of children's play invitations over time.

Generalization and maintenance of language responses. A study across trainers, schools, and home settings

Manipulating the reinforcement contingencies in training and generalization settings facilitated school-to-home generalization of language responses. Four developmentally disabled preschool children were trained in a one-to-one school setting to point to two sets of pictures in multiple baseline fashion. Initial generalization in the presence of a second trainer in school and the mother at home was documented in both no-reinforcement and intermittent reinforcement probe conditions (in which correct responses to nonprobe items were reinforced on a VR-3 schedule). High levels of correct responding with the second trainer at school were maintained in both the no-reinforcement and intermittent reinforcement conditions, regardless of the sequence of conditions. The reversal design showed that for three of the four children, intermittent reinforcement was necessary to maintain high levels of correct responding at home. Deterioration, increased variability, and, in some instances, extinction occurred when the no-reinforcement condition was in effect in the home setting.

Teaching behaviorally handicapped preschool children to share

We examined the effectiveness of Barton and Ascione 's (1979) package for training sharing in a classroom setting with six behaviorally handicapped preschool children, four of whom were also developmentally delayed. Individual responses in sharing and not sharing were examined. Training consisted of initial instructions, modeling, and behavioral rehearsal, followed by teacher prompts and praise regarding sharing directly in a classroom free play period. Introduction of training in a multiple-baseline design across three pairs of children resulted in substantial increases in sharing for five of the six children. Results for negative interactions were less clear but suggested that concomitant decreases occurred for the same five children. The response analysis indicated that (a) individual components of sharing (offers, requests, and acceptances ) all increased with training; (b) most children were more likely to initiate sharing through requests than through offers; (c) the proportion of sharing initiatives accepted by peers increased with training despite a much greater absolute number of initiatives; and (d) of the three negative behaviors (opposing play, taking without asking, and aggression) examined as incompatible with sharing, the most prevalent response was opposing other children's play. Individual differences in initial social repertoires and responsiveness to training were examined with respect to their implications for research and practice. Overall, the findings provide an encouraging indication of an intervention program for children with behavioral, social, and developmental handicaps.

Improving classroom behavior in mentally retarded children through correspondence training

Except for a few studies, most research investigating correspondence training procedures has been more analogue in nature. The purpose of the present set of studies was to examine whether a "say-do" correspondence training technique could be used with children in special education classes to improve classroom behavior. The specific behaviors targeted for change included: out-of-seat behavior (Experiment 1), sitting posture (Experiment 2), and on-task behavior (Experiment 3). The say-do procedure used in Experiment 1 resembled that of previous studies, whereas that in Experiment 2 was more elaborate in the specificity of verbal statements required from the children and the feedback given them. The training procedure in Experiment 3 used a format similar to the say-do approach, but stressed visual rather than verbal cuing because it was used with nonverbal children. All three studies used single-subject designs and examined maintenance and/or generalization questions. Experiments 2 and 3 also evaluated whether concomitant changes in performance on academic tasks occurred. The results of the three studies provide strong evidence that correspondence training can be effectively used with educationally handicapped children. Moreover, the successful modification of the "say-do" to a "show-do" procedure in Experiment 3 points out the flexibility of the correspondence training approach.

Reducing severe diurnal bruxism in two profoundly retarded females

Several diurnal audible teeth grinding (bruxism) was found to affect 21.5% of a profoundly retarded population. However, no previous research has treated bruxism in retarded individuals. In the current study a multiple baseline across subjects design was used to assess the effectiveness of contingent "icing," brief contingent tactile applications of ice, as a treatment for bruxism. Three 15-minute treatment periods and two 5-minute generalization periods were conducted 5 days per week. One resident displayed a 95% reduction in the percentage of intervals during which bruxism occurred during treatment periods and a 67% reduction during generalization periods. The other resident displayed a 94% reduction in the percentage of intervals during which bruxism occurred during treatment periods and a 53% reduction during generalization periods.