Contextual control of delay discounting by pathological gamblers

Hedonic hunger, ultra-processed food consumption, and the moderating effects of impulsivity in pregnant individuals with body mass index ≥ 25

Evidence suggests higher hedonic hunger (preoccupation with/desire to consume food for pleasure) is associated with greater ultra-processed food (UPF) consumption in non-pregnant individuals with higher, but not lower, self-report impulsivity or delay discounting. The current study tested the association between hedonic hunger and UPF consumption, and the moderating effects of self-report impulsivity and delay discounting, during pregnancy. Individuals (N = 220) with body mass index (BMI)≥25 completed the Power of Food Scale, 24-h dietary recalls, and Barratt Impulsiveness Scale-Version 11 in early-mid pregnancy. A subset enrolled in an ancillary study (n = 143) completed a Delay Discounting Task. Linear regression and moderation models covaried for age, gestational age, pre-pregnancy BMI, and socioeconomic status. The association between hedonic hunger and UPF consumption was nonsignificant (p = 0.47). Self-report impulsivity was not a significant moderator (p = 0.11), but delay discounting was (p = 0.01). Simple slopes analysis revealed a one-unit increase in hedonic hunger was associated with 7% lower UPF intake among participants with lower (M+1SD) delay discounting (p = 0.01) and 1% higher UPF intake among those with higher (M-1SD) delay discounting (p = 0.57). Findings contrast those from research with non-pregnant samples and indicate lower delay discounting may serve as a protective factor, associated with reduced UPF consumption at higher levels of hedonic hunger, during pregnancy.

Using behavioral economics to optimize safer undergraduate late-night transportation

Many universities sponsor student-oriented transit services that could reduce alcohol-induced risks but only if services adequately anticipate and adapt to student needs. Human choice data offer an optimal foundation for planning and executing late-night transit services. In this simulated choice experiment, respondents opted to either (a) wait an escalating delay for a free university-sponsored "safe" option, (b) pay an escalating fee for an on-demand rideshare service, or (c) pick a free, immediately available "unsafe" option (e.g., ride with an alcohol-impaired driver). Behavioral-economic nonlinear models of averaged-choice data describe preference across arrangements. Best-fit metrics indicate adequate sensitivity to contextual factors (i.e., wait time, preceding late-night activity). At short delays, students preferred the free transit option. As delays extend beyond 30 min, most students preferred competing alternatives. These data depict a policy-relevant delay threshold to better safeguard undergraduate student safety.

Reliability and validity of behavioral-economic measures: A review and synthesis of discounting and demand

This review sought to synthesize the literature on the reliability and validity of behavioral-economic measures of demand and discounting in human research, introduce behavioral-economic research methodologies for studying addictive behaviors, discuss gaps in the current literature, and review areas for future research. A total of 34 studies was included in this review. The discounting literature showed similar responding regardless of whether hypothetical or actual outcomes were used, though people tended to discount the outcome presented first more steeply, suggesting order effects. Although delay-discounting measures seem to show temporal stability, exceptions were found for probability- and experiential-discounting tasks. The demand literature also demonstrated similar responding regardless of outcome type; however, some demand indices showed exceptions. Randomized price sequences tended to show modest increases in Omax and α and modestly higher rates of inconsistent or nonsystematic responses compared with sequential price sequences. Demand indices generally showed temporal stability, although the stability was weaker the larger the time interval between test sessions. Future studies would benefit by examining addictive commodities beyond alcohol, nicotine, and money; examining temporal stability over longer time intervals; using larger delays in discounting tasks; and using larger sample sizes.

Valuing the future at different temporal points: The role of time framing on discounting

The rate of delay discounting exhibited by individuals has been experimentally altered by manipulating the way in which time is described, a specific application of the framing effect. Previous research suggests that using specific dates to describe delays tends to lower temporal discounting and change the shape of the discounting function. The main purpose of this study was to assess the influence of framing on discounting in different temporal contexts. Participants chose between hypothetical monetary gains (gains group), or between hypothetical monetary losses (losses group). Each group completed eight discounting tasks over two sessions (two choice tasks [SmallNow/SmallSoon] by two time frames [dates/calendar units] by two magnitudes. The results indicate that Mazur's model adequately described the observed discounting functions in most conditions. However, the decrease in discounting rate when both consequences were delayed only occurred when calendar units (but not dates) were used for both gains and losses. These findings suggest that framing affects the influence of a shared delay instead of changing the shape of the discounting function. Our results support the idea that time influences behavior similarly in humans and nonhumans when they choose between two delayed consequences.

Impulsivity and Alcohol-Drinking Behavior: Evidence from Japan

Despite the attempt by the Japanese government to reduce alcohol consumption, reduction of alcohol consumption requires improvement. We explore this issue from the impulsivity perspective and investigate whether a causal relationship exists between impulsivity and drinking behavior. We used data from the Preference Parameter Study of Osaka University to capture respondents' drinking status. Our probit regression showed that procrastination, a proxy measure of impulsivity, was significantly associated with drinking behavior, while hyperbolic discounting, a direct measure of impulsivity, was insignificant. Our findings suggest that impulsive people will discount their health in the future; thus, the government should consider impulsivity in policymaking. For example, awareness programs should focus more on future healthcare costs from alcohol-related problems so that impulsive drinkers can understand how much they may need to spend in the future compared to current satisfaction with alcohol drinking.

Reinforcer pathology, probabilistic choice, and medication adherence in patients with multiple sclerosis

The reinforcer pathology model posits that core behavioral economic mechanisms, including delay discounting and behavioral economic demand, underlie adverse health decisions and related clinical disorders. Extensions beyond substance use disorder and obesity, however, are limited. Using a reinforcer pathology framework, this study evaluates medical adherence decisions in patients with multiple sclerosis. Participants completed behavioral economic measures, including delay discounting, probability discounting, and a medication purchase task. A medical decision-making task was also used to evaluate how sensitivity to mild side effect risk and efficacy contributed to the likelihood of taking a hypothetical disease-modifying therapy. Less steep delay discounting and more intense (greater) medication demand were independently associated with greater adherence to the medication decision-making procedure. More generally, the pattern of interrelations between the medication-specific and general behavioral economic metrics was consistent with and contributes to the reinforcer pathology model. Additional research is warranted to expand these models to different populations and health behaviors, including those of a positive health orientation (i.e., medication adherence).

Social media sites users' choice between utilitarian and informational reinforcers assessed using temporal discounting

Objective

This study provides a first approach to the use of the Multiple-Choice Procedure in social media networks use, as well as empirical evidence for the application of the Behavioral Perspective Model to digital consumption behavior in young users in conjunction with a methodology based on behavioral economics.

Participants/methods

The participants were part of a large university in Bogotá, Colombia, and they received an academic credit once they completed the online questionnaire. A total of 311 participants completed the experiment. Of the participants, 49% were men with a mean age of 20.6 years (SD = 3.10, Range = 15-30); 51% were women with a mean age of 20.2 years (SD = 2.84, Range = 15-29).

Results

Among the total participants, 40% reported that they used social networks between 1 and 2 h a day, 38% between 2 and 3 h, 16% for 4 h or more, and the remaining 9% used them for 1 h or less per day. The factorial analysis of variance (ANOVA) allowed us to identify a statistically significant effect of the delay of the alternative reinforcer, that is, the average crossover points were higher when the monetary reinforcer was delayed 1 week, compared to the immediate delivery of the monetary reinforcer. There was no statistically significant effect of the interaction between the magnitude of the reinforcer and the delay time of the alternative reinforcer.

Conclusions

This study supports the relative reinforcing value of an informational reinforcement consequence such as social media use, which is sensitive to both the magnitude of reinforcement and the delay in delivery as individual factors. The findings on reinforcer magnitude and delay effects are consistent with previous research that have applied behavioral economics to the study of non-substance-related addictions.

A Rapid Assessment of Sensitivity to Reward Delays and Classwide Token Economy Savings for School-Aged Children

Delay discounting tasks measure the relation between reinforcer delay and efficacy. The present study established the association between delay discounting and classroom behavior and introduced a brief measure quantifying sensitivity to reward delays for school-aged children. Study 1 reanalyzed data collected by Reed and Martens (J Appl Behav Anal 44(1):1-18, https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.2011.44-1, 2011) and found that 1-month delay choices predicted student classroom behavior. Study 2 examined the utility of the 1-month delay indifference point in predicting saving and spending behavior of second-grade students using token economies with two different token production schedules. Collectively, results showed (a) the 1-month delay indifference point predicted classroom behavior, (b) children who discounted less and had greater self-regulation, accrued and saved more tokens, and (c) a variable token production schedule better correlated with discounting than a fixed schedule. Implications are discussed regarding utility of a rapid discounting assessment for applied use.

What to target in cognitive behavioral treatment for gambling disorder-A qualitative study of clinically relevant behaviors

BACKGROUND

From a clinical perspective, knowledge of the psychological processes involved in maintaining gambling disorder has been lacking. This qualitative study formulated hypotheses on how gambling disorder is maintained by identifying clinically relevant behaviors at an individual level, as a means to guide the development of new cognitive behavioral interventions.

METHODS

Six individuals from a treatment study, diagnosed with gambling disorder and with diverse symptom profiles of psychiatric comorbidity, were recruited. Participants were interviewed using an in-depth semi-structured functional interview and completed self-report measures assessing gambling behavior.

RESULTS

Functional analysis was used as a theoretical framework for a thematic analysis, which yielded the following categories: 1) antecedents that may increase or decrease gambling; 2) experiences accompanying gambling; 3) control strategies; 4) consequences of gambling behavior; and 5) events terminating gambling behavior. Few differences were identified in relation to symptom profiles of psychiatric comorbidity, although some gamblers did not report experiencing abstinence when not being able to gamble.

CONCLUSIONS

Gambling is a secluded activity mainly triggered by access to money. Positive and negative emotions could be both antecedents and functions of gambling behavior. Avoidance-based strategies used to control gambling might result in a failure to learn to control gambling behavior. Anticipation, selective attention, and chasing could be important reinforcers, which should be addressed in new developments in cognitive behavioral treatment for gambling disorder.

Gambling Environment Exposure Increases Temporal Discounting but Improves Model-Based Control in Regular Slot-Machine Gamblers

Gambling disorder is a behavioral addiction that negatively impacts personal finances, work, relationships and mental health. In this pre-registered study (https://osf.io/5ptz9/) we investigated the impact of real-life gambling environments on two computational markers of addiction, temporal discounting and model-based reinforcement learning. Gambling disorder is associated with increased temporal discounting and reduced model-based learning. Regular gamblers (n = 30, DSM-5 score range 3-9) performed both tasks in a neutral (café) and a gambling-related environment (slot-machine venue) in counterbalanced order. Data were modeled using drift diffusion models for temporal discounting and reinforcement learning via hierarchical Bayesian estimation. Replicating previous findings, gamblers discounted rewards more steeply in the gambling-related context. This effect was positively correlated with gambling related cognitive distortions (pre-registered analysis). In contrast to our pre-registered hypothesis, model-based reinforcement learning was improved in the gambling context. Here we show that temporal discounting and model-based reinforcement learning are modulated in opposite ways by real-life gambling cue exposure. Results challenge aspects of habit theories of addiction, and reveal that laboratory-based computational markers of psychopathology are under substantial contextual control.

Generalizability of time-based interventions: Effects of choice procedure and smaller-sooner delay

Interventions exposing rats to delayed-reward contingencies attenuate suboptimal impulsive choices, a preference for a smaller-sooner (SS) over a larger-later (LL) reward. Interventions may potentially improve delay-tolerance, timing of delays, and/or discrimination of reward magnitudes. Generalization from the intervention to impulsive choice under different procedures can provide insights into the processes that underlie the intervention effects. Experiment 1 tested intervention effects on systematic-delay (SYS) and adjusting-delay (ADJ) procedures, predicting that intervention effects would be more effective on the SYS procedure with predictable delays. The ADJ procedure did not benefit significantly from intervention, but the SYS procedure, unexpectedly, showed greater impulsive choices following intervention. Experiment 2 tested whether short (5 s) SS intervention delays may have promoted greater impulsivity in the SYS impulsive choice procedure in Experiment 1. Short SS delays in choice and intervention procedures increased impulsive choices in comparison to longer (10 s) delays. Incongruent SS delays in the intervention/choice procedures resulted in negative intervention effects. The results suggest that short SS delays are detrimental to self-control and that specific temporal information generalizes from the intervention to the SYS choice task, but not the ADJ choice task.

Deprivation Has Inconsistent Effects on Delay Discounting: A Review

Delay discounting, the tendency for outcomes to be devalued as they are more temporally remote, has implications as a target for behavioral interventions. Because of these implications, it is important to understand how different states individuals may face, such as deprivation, influence the degree of delay discounting. Both dual systems models and state-trait views of delay discounting assume that deprivation may result in steeper delay discounting. Despite early inconsistencies and mixed results, researchers have sometimes asserted that deprivation increases delay discounting, with few qualifications. The aim of this review was to determine what empirical effect, if any, deprivation has on delay discounting. We considered many kinds of deprivation, such as deprivation from sleep, drugs, and food in humans and non-human animals. For 23 studies, we analyzed the effect of deprivation on delay discounting by computing effect sizes for the difference between delay discounting in a control, or baseline, condition and delay discounting in a deprived state. We discuss these 23 studies and other relevant studies found in our search in a narrative review. Overall, we found mixed effects of deprivation on delay discounting. The effect may depend on what type of deprivation participants faced. Effect sizes for deprivation types ranged from small for sleep deprivation (Hedge's gs between −0.21 and 0.07) to large for opiate deprivation (Hedge's gs between 0.42 and 1.72). We discuss possible reasons why the effect of deprivation on delay discounting may depend on deprivation type, including the use of imagined manipulations and deprivation intensity. The inconsistency in results across studies, even when comparing within the same type of deprivation, indicates that more experiments are needed to reach a consensus on the effects of deprivation on delay discounting. A basic understanding of how states affect delay discounting may inform translational efforts.

Carrots for the donkey: Influence of evaluative conditioning and training on self-paced exercise intensity and delay discounting of exercise in healthy adults

To choose exercise over alternative behaviours, subjective reward evaluation of the potential choices is a principal step in decision making. However, the selection of exercise intensity might integrate acute visceral responses (i.e. pleasant or unpleasant feelings) and motives related to goals (i.e. enjoyment, competition, health). To understand the factors determining the selection of exercise in its intensity and evaluation as a modality, we conducted a study combining exercise training and evaluative conditioning. Evaluative conditioning was performed by using a novel technique using a primary reinforcer (sweetness) as the unconditioned stimulus and physical strain i.e. heart rate elevation as the conditioned stimulus during interval training, using a randomized control design (N = 58). Pre, post-three weeks interval training w/o conditioning, and after 4 weeks follow-up, participants were tested on self-paced speed selection on treadmill measuring heart rate, subjective pleasantness, and effort levels, as well as delay-discounting of exercise and food rewards. Results revealed that the selection of exercise intensity was significantly increased by adaptation to training and evaluative conditioning, revealing the importance of visceral factors as well as learned expected rewards. Delay discounting rates of self-paced exercise were transiently reduced by training but not affected by evaluative conditioning. In conclusion, exercise decisions are suggested to separate the decision-making process into a modality-specific cognitive evaluation of exercise, and an exercise intensity selection based on acute visceral experience integrating effort, pleasantness, and learned rewards.

Moderating Effect of Impulsivity on the Association Between Entrapment and Problem Gambling

Impulsivity as measure by delay discounting and entrapment have been known to influence gambling, but their individual and joint influence on problem gambling among Soccer gamblers are not yet understood. We examine the direct and moderation influences of entrapment and delay discounting on problem gambling among 174 Soccer gamblers in Nigeria. Data were obtained by means of self-report questionnaires of entrapment, delay discounting and problem gambling. Results from Hayes PROCESS moderated regression showed that delay discounting moderated the association between entrapment and problem gambling such that the association between entrapment and problem gambling was strong when delay discounting was high and diminished when delay discounting was low. Our findings provide insight into the conditional effect of delay discounting on the entrapment-problem gambling association.

Neural correlates of cue-induced changes in decision-making distinguish subjects with gambling disorder from healthy controls

In addiction, there are few human studies on the neural basis of cue-induced changes in value-based decision making (Pavlovian-to-instrumental transfer, PIT). It is especially unclear whether neural alterations related to PIT are due to the physiological effects of substance abuse or rather related to learning processes and/or other etiological factors related to addiction. We have thus investigated whether neural activation patterns during a PIT task help to distinguish subjects with gambling disorder (GD), a nonsubstance-based addiction, from healthy controls (HCs). Thirty GD and 30 HC subjects completed an affective decision-making task in a functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) scanner. Gambling-associated and other emotional cues were shown in the background during the task. Data collection and feature modeling focused on a network of nucleus accumbens (NAcc), amygdala, and orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) (derived from PIT and substance use disorder [SUD] studies). We built and tested a linear classifier based on these multivariate neural PIT signatures. GD subjects showed stronger PIT than HC subjects. Classification based on neural PIT signatures yielded a significant area under the receiver operating curve (AUC-ROC) (0.70, p = 0.013). GD subjects showed stronger PIT-related functional connectivity between NAcc and amygdala elicited by gambling cues, as well as between amygdala and OFC elicited by negative and positive cues. HC and GD subjects were thus distinguishable by PIT-related neural signatures including amygdala-NAcc-OFC functional connectivity. Neural PIT alterations in addictive disorders might not depend on the physiological effect of a substance of abuse but on related learning processes or even innate neural traits.

Reliability assessment of temporal discounting measures in virtual reality environments

In recent years the emergence of high-performance virtual reality (VR) technology has opened up new possibilities for the examination of context effects in psychological studies. The opportunity to create ecologically valid stimulation in a highly controlled lab environment is especially relevant for studies of psychiatric disorders, where it can be problematic to confront participants with certain stimuli in real life. However, before VR can be confidently applied widely it is important to establish that commonly used behavioral tasks generate reliable data within a VR surrounding. One field of research that could benefit greatly from VR-applications are studies assessing the reactivity to addiction related cues (cue-reactivity) in participants suffering from gambling disorder. Here we tested the reliability of a commonly used temporal discounting task in a novel VR set-up designed for the concurrent assessment of behavioral and psychophysiological cue-reactivity in gambling disorder. On 2 days, thirty-four healthy non-gambling participants explored two rich and navigable VR-environments (neutral: café vs. gambling-related: casino and sports-betting facility), while their electrodermal activity was measured using remote sensors. In addition, participants completed the temporal discounting task implemented in each VR environment. On a third day, participants performed the task in a standard lab testing context. We then used comprehensive computational modeling using both standard softmax and drift diffusion model (DDM) choice rules to assess the reliability of discounting model parameters assessed in VR. Test-retest reliability estimates were good to excellent for the discount rate log(k), whereas they were poor to moderate for additional DDM parameters. Differences in model parameters between standard lab testing and VR, reflecting reactivity to the different environments, were mostly numerically small and of inconclusive directionality. Finally, while exposure to VR generally increased tonic skin conductance, this effect was not modulated by the neutral versus gambling-related VR-environment. Taken together this proof-of-concept study in non-gambling participants demonstrates that temporal discounting measures obtained in VR are reliable, suggesting that VR is a promising tool for applications in computational psychiatry, including studies on cue-reactivity in addiction.

Discounting of food and water in rats shows trait- and state-like characteristics

Delay discounting is the loss in value of an outcome as a function of its delay. The present study focused on examining a trait-like characteristic of delay discounting in a preclinical animal model. Specifically, we were interested in whether there was a positive relation between discounting of 2 different outcomes in rats. That is, would rats that discount delayed food steeply also discount delayed water steeply? In addition, we examined how session-to-session variability in discounting could be attributed to differences between subjects (trait variability) and to differences within subjects (state variability). Finally, we measured discounting from early- to mid-adulthood, allowing us to examine changes in discounting as a function of age. Overall, we found a moderate, positive correlation between discounting of food and discounting of water in rats, providing further evidence that the relative consistency with which individuals discount different outcomes is a trait-like characteristic. In addition, we found a high degree of within-subject variability in discounting, indicating strong state-like differences from session to session. Finally, overall, discounting decreased as a function of age; however, individual-subject data showed variability in how discounting changed across time. Overall, our results show that differences in delay discounting between individuals reflect variability in both trait- and state-like characteristics.

Cue-induced effects on decision-making distinguish subjects with gambling disorder from healthy controls

While an increased impact of cues on decision-making has been associated with substance dependence, it is yet unclear whether this is also a phenotype of non-substance-related addictive disorders, such as gambling disorder (GD). To better understand the basic mechanisms of impaired decision-making in addiction, we investigated whether cue-induced changes in decision-making could distinguish GD from healthy control (HC) subjects. We expected that cue-induced changes in gamble acceptance and specifically in loss aversion would distinguish GD from HC subjects. Thirty GD subjects and 30 matched HC subjects completed a mixed gambles task where gambling and other emotional cues were shown in the background. We used machine learning to carve out the importance of cue dependency of decision-making and of loss aversion for distinguishing GD from HC subjects. Cross-validated classification yielded an area under the receiver operating curve (AUC-ROC) of 68.9% (p = .002). Applying the classifier to an independent sample yielded an AUC-ROC of 65.0% (p = .047). As expected, the classifier used cue-induced changes in gamble acceptance to distinguish GD from HC. Especially, increased gambling during the presentation of gambling cues characterized GD subjects. However, cue-induced changes in loss aversion were irrelevant for distinguishing GD from HC subjects. To our knowledge, this is the first study to investigate the classificatory power of addiction-relevant behavioral task parameters when distinguishing GD from HC subjects. The results indicate that cue-induced changes in decision-making are a characteristic feature of addictive disorders, independent of a substance of abuse.

Residential mobility mindset enhances temporal discounting in the loss framework

With the internationalization of human society, population mobility has greatly increased, which can affect people's psychological states and behaviors. Research on residential mobility is burgeoning, but few studies have linked this topic to decision making, particularly temporal discounting, in which individuals generally discount future gains and losses. In Study 1, we manipulated individuals' residential mobility and stability and found that residential mobility heightened temporal discounting. In Study 2, which was designed to investigate the neural mechanism underlying this relationship, the participants gambled between two pictures and received temporal-related feedback, including gain and loss, while event-related potentials (ERPs) were recorded. The results showed that the main effect of temporal discounting was reflected in the feedback-related negativity (FRN) component in the 180-340 ms time window. Additionally, the participants primed with mobility rather than stability exhibited a significant difference in FRN over the right-central electrodes between present and future large-amount losses but not between present and future large-amount or small-amount gains. Study 3 revealed that residential mobility increased the participant's sense of uncertainty, thereby enhancing temporal discounting. In conclusion, the current research reveals that residential mobility enhances temporal discounting by modulating the neural processes involved in evaluating monetary loss and by increasing the individual's sense of uncertainty. This research suggests that socioecological factors play important roles in individuals' intertemporal decisions.

Long-term changes in delay discounting following a smoking cessation treatment for patients with depression

BACKGROUND

Delay discounting (DD) has been identified as a trans-disorder process underlying addictive behaviors, including smoking. Previous studies have evaluated how different treatments for drug dependence have affected DD, showing mixed results. Furthermore, no study has examined the effects of changes in depression on DD rates. The aim of this study was to evaluate the impact of treatment type: cognitive behavioral treatment (CBT), CBT + behavioral activation (BA), or CBT + BA + contingency management (CM), and changes in smoking status and depression on DD rates in long-term follow-up among a sample of treatment-seeking smokers with depression.

METHODS

Participants were 180 treatment-seeking smokers with depression who were randomly assigned to one of the following treatment conditions: CBT (n = 60), CBT + BA (n = 60), and CBT + BA + CM (n = 60). Depressive symptomatology and major depression diagnosis were evaluated through the BDI-II and the SCID-I of the DSM-IV-TR. DD rates were assessed using the DD task with hypothetical monetary rewards. Smoking status, DD, and depressive symptomatology were collected at baseline, at end-of-treatment and at one-, two-, three-, and six-month follow-ups.

RESULTS

CM for smoking cessation reduces DD rates (p = .0094). Smoking abstinence (p = .0024) and reduction in depressive symptoms (p = .0437) were associated with decreases in DD rates in long-term follow-up.

CONCLUSIONS

CM interventions for smoking cessation, smoking abstinence, and the improvement of depression contribute to reductions in DD over time.

Behavior and Substance Addictions in Children: A Behavioral Model and Potential Solutions

Behavior and substance use addictions are increasingly prevalent in children with increased risk for substance abuse and mental health diagnoses in adulthood. This article proposes a comprehensive model of addiction to inform research on the prevention and treatment of childhood addiction, emphasizing skills training, mindfulness training, and broader treatment strategies consistent with acceptance and commitment therapy.

The drift diffusion model as the choice rule in inter-temporal and risky choice: A case study in medial orbitofrontal cortex lesion patients and controls

Sequential sampling models such as the drift diffusion model (DDM) have a long tradition in research on perceptual decision-making, but mounting evidence suggests that these models can account for response time (RT) distributions that arise during reinforcement learning and value-based decision-making. Building on this previous work, we implemented the DDM as the choice rule in inter-temporal choice (temporal discounting) and risky choice (probability discounting) using hierarchical Bayesian parameter estimation. We validated our approach in data from nine patients with focal lesions to the ventromedial prefrontal cortex / medial orbitofrontal cortex (vmPFC/mOFC) and nineteen age- and education-matched controls. Model comparison revealed that, for both tasks, the data were best accounted for by a variant of the drift diffusion model including a non-linear mapping from value-differences to trial-wise drift rates. Posterior predictive checks confirmed that this model provided a superior account of the relationship between value and RT. We then applied this modeling framework and 1) reproduced our previous results regarding temporal discounting in vmPFC/mOFC patients and 2) showed in a previously unpublished data set on risky choice that vmPFC/mOFC patients exhibit increased risk-taking relative to controls. Analyses of DDM parameters revealed that patients showed substantially increased non-decision times and reduced response caution during risky choice. In contrast, vmPFC/mOFC damage abolished neither scaling nor asymptote of the drift rate. Relatively intact value processing was also confirmed using DDM mixture models, which revealed that in both groups >98% of trials were better accounted for by a DDM with value modulation than by a null model without value modulation. Our results highlight that novel insights can be gained from applying sequential sampling models in studies of inter-temporal and risky decision-making in cognitive neuroscience.

Delay discounting of different outcomes: Review and theory

Steep delay discounting is characterized by a preference for small immediate outcomes relative to larger delayed outcomes and is predictive of drug abuse, risky sexual behaviors, and other maladaptive behaviors. Nancy M. Petry was a pioneer in delay discounting research who demonstrated that people discount delayed monetary gains less steeply than they discount substances with abuse liability. Subsequent research found steep discounting for not only drugs, but other nonmonetary outcomes such as food, sex, and health. In this systematic review, we evaluate the hypotheses proposed to explain differences in discounting as a function of the type of outcome and explore the trait- and state-like nature of delay discounting. We found overwhelming evidence for the state-like quality of delay discounting: Consistent with Petry and others' work, nonmonetary outcomes are discounted more steeply than monetary outcomes. We propose two hypotheses that together may account for this effect: Decreasing Future Preference and Decreasing Future Worth. We also found clear evidence that delay discounting has trait-like qualities: People who steeply discount monetary outcomes steeply discount nonmonetary outcomes as well. The implication is that changing delay discounting for one outcome could change discounting for other outcomes.

Dimensions of Impulsivity in Gambling Disorder

Impulsivity is a multidimensional construct. Although gambling disorder (GD) has been associated with high impulsivity, impulsivity across multiple domains has not been thoroughly investigated in this population. We first aimed to examine whether associations between three facets of impulsivity (response impulsivity, choice impulsivity and impulsive tendency) varied between GD patients and healthy controls (HC). We next aimed to evaluate relationships between these three types of impulsivity, as proposed by theoretical models of impulsivity, and their associations with GD severity. The sample included 97 treatment-seeking adult men with GD, diagnosed according to DSM-5 criteria, and 32 male HCs recruited from the general population. Greater impulsivity in all three domains was found in men with GD in comparison to men without GD. Associations between impulsivity facets were found in both groups, with response impulsivity being the only domain associated with GD severity. Our findings confirm that multiple domains of impulsivity are relevant in GD. Future studies should examine the extent to which treatments aimed at targeting specific aspects of impulsivity improve outcomes.

An Exploratory Study of Relationships Among Five-Factor Personality Measures and Forms of Gambling in Adults With and Without Probable Pathological Gambling

The present study explored relationships between personality domains and gambling forms in individuals with and without probable pathological gambling (PPG). Associations among personality domain scores obtained from the NEO Personality Inventory-Revised, endorsements of gambling activities on the South Oaks Gambling Screen (SOGS), and PPG as determined by the SOGS were examined with bivariate and logistic regression analyses. Compared to recreational gamblers, those with PPG scored significantly higher in neuroticism and lower in agreeableness and conscientiousness. Agreeableness was inversely associated with gambling on cards, sports, bingo, stock market, dice, and skill games. Conscientiousness was inversely associated with gambling on sports and animal racing. Extraversion was positively associated with gambling on cards, dice, and stocks. Neuroticism and openness were positively associated with gambling on animal racing and stock gambling, respectively. Significant interactions indicated stronger inverse associations between agreeableness and gambling in casinos, on sports, and on skill games and stronger positive associations between openness and gambling on stocks and skill games in individuals with PPG compared to those without. The results suggest different relationships between personality domain measures and specific forms of gambling in individuals with and without PPG. Future research efforts should examine how personality factors may be used to enhance policy, prevention, and treatment efforts.

Delay Discounting in Impulsive Behavior

Abstract. Delay discounting (DD) is the process of devaluing results that happen in the future. With this review, we intend to identify specificities in the processes of DD in impulsive behavior. Studies were retrieved from multiple literature databases, through rigorous criteria (we included systematic reviews and empirical studies with adult human subjects), following the procedures of the Cochrane Collaboration initiative. Of the 174 documents obtained, 19 were considered eligible for inclusion and were retained for in-depth analysis. In addition, 13 studies from the manual search were included. Thus, a total of 32 studies were selected for review. The objectives/hypotheses, results, and the main conclusion(s) were extracted from each study. Results show that people with pronounced traits of impulsivity discount rewards more markedly, that is, they prefer immediate rewards, though of less value, or postponed losses, even though they worsen in the future. Taken together, the existing data suggest the importance of inserting DD as a tool for initial assessment in conjunction with measures of addiction and stress level, as well as the consideration of new therapies.

Hunger increases delay discounting of food and non-food rewards

How do our valuation systems change to homeostatically correct undesirable psychological or physiological states, such as those caused by hunger? There is evidence that hunger increases discounting for food rewards, biasing choices towards smaller but sooner food reward over larger but later reward. However, it is not understood how hunger modulates delay discounting for non-food items. We outline and quantitatively evaluate six possible models of how our valuation systems modulate discounting of various commodities in the face of the undesirable state of being hungry. With a repeated-measures design, an experimental hunger manipulation, and quantitative modeling, we find strong evidence that hunger causes large increases in delay discounting for food, with an approximately 25% spillover effect to non-food commodities. The results provide evidence that in the face of hunger, our valuation systems increase discounting for commodities, which cannot achieve a desired state change as well as for those commodities that can. Given that strong delay discounting can cause negative outcomes in many non-food (consumer, investment, medical, or inter-personal) domains, the present findings suggest caution may be necessary when making decisions involving non-food outcomes while hungry.

Exploring the Relationships Between Problem Gambling and ADHD: A Meta-Analysis

Objective: At present, there are inconsistencies in the literature pertaining to the association between ADHD and problem gambling. This study utilized meta-analytic techniques to clarify the association between symptoms of problem gambling and symptoms of ADHD. Method: Several meta-analyses were conducted using a random effects model. PsycINFO, PubMed, ProQuest Dissertations & Theses, and Google Scholar were searched for relevant studies. Results: The weighted mean correlation between ADHD symptomology and gambling severity was r = .17, 95% confidence interval (CI) = [0.12, 0.22], p < .001. Mean age of the sample was the only moderator to approach significance, with greater age being linked to a stronger relationship between symptoms of ADHD and gambling severity. Conclusion: Clinicians needs to be cognizant of the greater risk of ADHD symptoms when working with problem gamblers and vice versa.

Cognitive and behavioral training interventions to promote self-control

This review article discusses various cognitive and behavioral interventions that have been developed with the goal of promoting self-controlled responding. Self-control can exert a significant impact on human health and impulsive behaviors are associated with a wide range of diseases and disorders, leading to the suggestion that impulsivity is a trans-disease process. The self-control interventions include effort exposure, reward discrimination, reward bundling, interval schedules of reinforcement, impulse control training, and mindfulness training. Most of the interventions have been consistently shown to increase self-control, except for mindfulness training. Some of the successful interventions are long-lasting, whereas others may be transient. Most interventions are domain-specific, targeting specific cognitive and behavioral processes that relate to self-control rather than targeting overall self-control. For example, effort exposure appears to primarily increase effort tolerance, which in turn can improve self-control. Similarly, interval schedules primarily target interval timing, which promotes self-controlled responses. A diagram outlining a proposed set of intervention effects on self-control is introduced to motivate further research in this area. The diagram suggests that the individual target processes of the interventions may potentially summate to produce general self-control, or perhaps even produce synergistic effects. In addition, it is suggested that developing a self-control profile may be advantageous for aligning specific interventions to mitigate specific deficits. Overall, the results indicate that interventions are a promising avenue for promoting self-control and may help to contribute to changing health outcomes associated with a wide variety of diseases and disorders. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Intergenerational transmission of delay discounting: The mediating role of household chaos

INTRODUCTION

Adolescence is a period when impulsive decision making may be especially vulnerable to environmental influences. Impulsive decision making is often assessed using a delay discounting paradigm, which measures the preference for smaller rewards sooner over larger rewards with a delay. Research is needed to clarify the relationship between parents' and adolescents' delay discounting and to identify related environmental processes that might facilitate the intergenerational transmission of delay discounting. The current prospective longitudinal study examined the competing mediating processes of household chaos and harsh parenting in the intergenerational transmission of delay discounting between parents and adolescents.

METHODS

Participants included 167 adolescents (mean age = 14.07 years at Time 1; 53% male) and their parents (mean age = 41.98 years at Time 1; 87% female) recruited from the southeast United States. Parents' delay discounting was collected at Time 1, and adolescents' delay discounting was collected both at Time 1 and at Time 3 via a computerized delay discounting task. Parents and adolescents reported household chaos and harsh parenting at Time 2.

RESULTS

A parallel mediation model indicated that parents' delay discounting at Time 1 indirectly predicted adolescents' delay discounting Time 3 residualized change scores (regressing Time 3 delay discounting onto baseline delay discounting) through household chaos but not through harsh parenting at Time 2.

CONCLUSIONS

These results underline the importance of household chaos in facilitating the intergenerational transmission of delay discounting between parents and adolescents. Furthermore, our findings point to household chaos as a potential environmental target for interrupting intergenerational impulsivity.

Clinical and Personality Characteristics of Problem and Pathological Gamblers With and Without Symptoms of Adult ADHD

The study examined the differential clinical and personality characteristics of problem and pathological gamblers (PPGs) with and without clinically significant symptoms of adult attention deficit hyperactive disorder (ADHD). Adults (N = 150, n = 75 women) with PPG were assessed by the SCID-IV, Conners' Adult ADHD Rating Scales, Multidimensional Personality Questionnaire, Gambling Motivation Questionnaire, and the Barratt Impulsiveness Scale. PPGs who reported symptoms of ADHD were more likely to be male, endorse psychiatric comorbidities (i.e., alcohol dependence, anxiety disorders, and antisocial personality disorder), report maladaptive personality traits (i.e., higher negative emotionality and lower positive emotionality), as well as higher impulsivity (attention impulsiveness, motor impulsiveness, and nonplanning impulsiveness). PPGs with symptoms of ADHD reported gambling for social, coping, and enhancement reasons. A multivariate binary logistic regression revealed that sex, higher scores on social reasons for gambling, and lack of premeditation were associated with an increased likelihood of reporting ADHD symptoms. The findings demonstrate important differences of PPGs with symptoms of ADHD and provide information for treatment consideration.

Threat appeals reduce impulsive decision making associated with texting while driving: A behavioral economic approach

The primary purpose of the present study was to examine the effectiveness of threat appeals in influencing impulsive decision making associated with texting while driving. The participants in the treatment group were exposed to a threatening message about the danger of texting while driving, whereas those in the control group were exposed to a non-threatening message. Following the exposure to either message, the participants completed a delay-discounting task that assessed the degree of impulsive decision making in a hypothetical texting-while-driving scenario. A comparison between the groups revealed that the threat appeals reduced the degree of impulsive decision making associated with texting while driving. In addition, the threat appeals led to greater anticipated regret from texting while driving, less favorable attitudes toward texting while driving, and decreased intentions to text while driving in the future in the treatment group. These results suggest that video-based threat appeals are promising intervention strategies for the public health challenge of texting while driving. Implications from the behavioral economic perspective are discussed.

The influence of contrived motivating operations on social discounting: Relative economic hardship affects choice

Thirty-six participants were given three social discounting surveys, and each survey was preceded by one of three contrived hypothetical scenarios. In each scenario, the participant was asked to consider situations in which either the participant (SELF), a hypothetical other (OTHER), or both the participant and the hypothetical other (BOTH) were experiencing economic hardship (i.e., needed money to avoid a negative outcome). Results replicate previous research suggesting that the probability of participants foregoing the money decreased across social distance in the BOTH and OTHER conditions; however, no discounting was observed for median responses in the SELF condition. In addition, the highest area under the curve and lowest s values were associated with the OTHER condition, and the inverse results were observed for the SELF condition. Taken together, these results suggest that relative economic hardship may act as a motivating operation affecting social discounting with the potential for further translational utility.

Good Things for Those Who Wait: Predictive Modeling Highlights Importance of Delay Discounting for Income Attainment

Income is a primary determinant of social mobility, career progression, and personal happiness. It has been shown to vary with demographic variables like age and education, with more oblique variables such as height, and with behaviors such as delay discounting, i.e., the propensity to devalue future rewards. However, the relative contribution of each these salary-linked variables to income is not known. Further, much of past research has often been underpowered, drawn from populations of convenience, and produced findings that have not always been replicated. Here we tested a large (n = 2,564), heterogeneous sample, and employed a novel analytic approach: using three machine learning algorithms to model the relationship between income and age, gender, height, race, zip code, education, occupation, and discounting. We found that delay discounting is more predictive of income than age, ethnicity, or height. We then used a holdout data set to test the robustness of our findings. We discuss the benefits of our methodological approach, as well as possible explanations and implications for the prominent relationship between delay discounting and income.

Relationship between attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder symptoms and problem gambling: A mediation analysis of influential factors among 7,403 individuals from the UK

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Our goal was to examine the association between attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptoms and gambling problems, and to identify potential mediating factors of this association.

METHODS

This study used cross-sectional, community-based data from 7,403 people aged ≥16 years who participated in the Adult Psychiatric Morbidity Survey 2007. ADHD symptoms were assessed using the Adult ADHD Self-Report Scale (ASRS) Screener. Problem gambling was assessed using a questionnaire based on the 10 DSM-IV diagnostic criteria for pathological gambling. Respondents were classified as having no problem, at-risk, or problem gambling. Logistic regression and mediation analyses were conducted to analyze the association between ADHD symptoms (i.e., ASRS score ≥14) and problem gambling and the role of several variables in this association.

RESULTS

The prevalence of at-risk (5.3% vs. 2.4%) and problem gambling (2.4% vs. 0.6%) was higher in individuals with ADHD symptoms than in those without ADHD symptoms. ADHD symptoms were significantly associated with both at-risk (OR = 2.15; 95% CI = 1.22-3.79) and problem gambling (OR = 3.57; 95% CI = 1.53-8.31) when adjusted for age, sex, and ethnicity. Common mental disorders (CMDs; i.e., depression and anxiety disorders) (mediated percentage = 22.4%), borderline personality disorder (BPD) traits (22.1%), stressful life events (13.2%), stress at work or home (12.6%), alcohol dependence (11.8%), and impulsivity (11.2%) were significant mediators in the ADHD-gambling association.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

Overall, ADHD symptoms were positively associated with problem gambling. CMDs, BPD traits, and stressful life events were important mediators in this relationship.

Resurrecting the individual in behavioral analysis: Using mixed effects models to address nonsystematic discounting data

Delay and probability discounting functions typically take a monotonic form, but some individuals produce functions that are nonsystematic. Johnson and Bickel (2008) developed an algorithm for classifying nonsystematic functions on the basis of two different criteria. Type 1 functions were identified as nonsystematic due to random choices and Type 2 functions were identified as nonsystematic due to relatively shallow slopes, suggesting poor sensitivity to choice parameters. Since their original publication, the algorithm has become widely used in the human discounting literature for removal of participants, with studies often removing approximately 20% of the original sample (Smith & Lawyer, 2017). Because subject removal may not always be feasible due to loss of power or other factors, the present report applied a mixed effects regression modeling technique (Wileyto, Audrain-Mcgovern, Epstein, & Lerman, 2004; Young, 2017) to account for individual differences in DD and PD functions. Assessment of the model estimates for Type 1 and 2 nonsystematic functions indicated that both types of functions deviated systematically from the rest of the sample in that nonsystematic participants were more likely to show shallower slopes and increased biases for larger amounts. The results indicate that removing these participants would fundamentally alter the properties of the final sample in undesirable ways. Because mixed effects models account for between-participant variation with random effects, we advocate for the use of these models for future analyses of a wide range of functions within the behavioral analysis field, with the benefit of avoiding the negative consequences associated with subject removal.

Another look at impulsivity: Could impulsive behavior be strategic?

In the present article, we propose that impulsive behavior may be a response to certain needs or goals that people have in the moment and could therefore be strategic. We review briefly the dominant approaches and findings in the impulsivity literature. We then examine different behaviors that are typically considered impulsive such as delay discounting, risky sexual behavior, risk taking in the context of emotion dysregulation, and adolescent risk behavior and present evidence suggesting that they follow the general principles of goal pursuit. Specifically, they are (a) enacted when perceived as relevant to the individual's motivation; (b) less likely when alternative means to fulfill these goals are available; and (c) supported rather than reduced by sufficient executive control, a hallmark of goal pursuit. We do not argue that there is no impulsive behavior. Rather, we suggest that such behavior may represent individuals' attempts to fulfill current motivations or needs. This approach emphasizes the functionality and dynamism of the behavior, it provides a framework to explain the inconsistencies in the literature, it helps us to move away from pathologizing or moralizing the behavior, and it provides insights about potential strategies to mitigate the negative consequences of acting impulsively.

Toward a Unifying Account of Impulsivity and the Development of Self-Control

Impulsivity has traditionally been thought to involve various behavioral traits that can be measured using different laboratory protocols. Whereas some authors regard different measures of impulsivity as reflecting fundamentally distinct and unrelated behavioral tendencies (fragmentation approach), others regard those different indexes as analogue forms of the same behavioral tendency, only superficially different (unification approach). Unifying accounts range from mere intuitions to more sophisticated theoretical systems. Some of the more complete attempts at unifying are intriguing but have validity weaknesses. We propose a new unifying attempt based on theoretical points posed by other authors and supplemented by theory and research on associative learning. We then apply these assumptions to characterize the paradigms used to study impulsivity in laboratory settings and evaluate their scope as an attempt at unification. We argue that our approach possesses a good balance of parsimony and empirical and theoretical grounding, as well as a more encompassing scope, and is more suitable for experimental testing than previous theoretical frameworks. In addition, the proposed approach is capable of generating a new definition of impulsivity and outlines a hypothesis of how self-control can be developed. Finally, we examine the fragmentation approach from a different perspective, emphasizing the importance of finding similarities among seemingly different phenomena.

The Influence of Probability Discounting on Escalation in Information Technology Projects

An experimental study was conducted with 17 experienced information technology (IT) project decision-makers. Each participated in a computer based simulation where they had to choose whether to continue an ongoing IT project despite negative feedback, (called escalation of commitment), or abandon it and sell the project as is. A titration procedure for sales price was manipulated over seven probability conditions for success of the project. The switching points where each participant would choose to sell the project instead of continuing development was determined, and probability discounting factors were calculated. The median switching point of the participant's subjective values of the project fit a hyperbolic discounting function well. An escalation factor was calculated and the results indicate that several participants in the study showed signs of escalation. These data demonstrate that the discounting framework may be a viable approach to understand the phenomenon of escalation in IT projects.