Some effects of noncontingent positive reinforcement on multiply controlled problem behavior and compliance in a demand context

Bridging the gap between laboratory and applied research on response-independent schedules

In 1948, Skinner described the behavior of pigeons under response-independent schedules as "superstitious," and proposed that the responses were reinforced by contiguous, adventitious food deliveries. Subsequently, response-independent schedules have been of interest to both basic and applied researchers, first to understand the mechanisms involved, and later, as "noncontingent reinforcement" (NCR) to reduce undesirable behavior. However, the potential superstitious effects produced by these schedules have been challenged, with some researchers arguing that antecedent variables play a significant role. This paper examines the evidence for adventitious reinforcement from both laboratory and applied research, the results of which suggest that antecedent, nonoperant functions may be important in fully understanding the effects of NCR. We propose an applied-basic research synthesis, in which attention to potential nonoperant functions could provide a more complete understanding of response-independent schedules. We conclude with a summary of the applied implications of the nonoperant functions of NCR schedules.

Advancing Methods in Animal-Assisted Intervention: Demonstration of Starting Points in Clinical Practice for Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder

Therapy animals have been frequently included in interventions for children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD); however, direct and systematic procedures such as assessing preference for and reinforcing efficacy of the animals are rarely conducted. Assessing preference for stimuli is valuable when determining how to make interventions for children with ASD most effective. We conducted paired-stimulus preference assessments and follow-up reinforcer assessments to determine if a therapy dog might be an effective reinforcer. We found one third of participants preferred the dog the least, one third of participants moderately preferred the dog, and one third of participants highly preferred the dog relative to other stimuli. Furthermore, we found preference predicted reinforcing efficacy for five of six participants. We suggest clinicians systematically conduct assessments to clearly identify the role of the therapy animal, to improve quality of, and demonstrate efficacy of interventions including animals for clinical populations.

Noncontingent reinforcement: Arbitrary versus maintaining reinforcers for escape-maintained problem behavior

Noncontingent reinforcement (NCR) involves the delivery of maintaining reinforcers on a time-dependent schedule and often includes extinction. However, arbitrary reinforcers may be equally efficacious during NCR without extinction for treating escape-maintained problem behavior. The purpose of this study was to extend previous research on NCR by evaluating the relative efficacy of NCR without extinction and comparing maintaining versus arbitrary reinforcers for 4 individuals with escape-maintained problem behavior. Two different NCR conditions, NCR using the maintaining reinforcer (escape) and NCR using an arbitrary reinforcer (an edible), were evaluated using multielement and reversal designs. Treatment effects varied across participants. Results for 2 participants showed a reduction in problem behavior during NCR without extinction with both the arbitrary and maintaining reinforcers. For 1 participant, results showed a reduction in problem behavior with both the arbitrary and maintaining reinforcers only when extinction was added to NCR. For the 4th participant, the maintaining reinforcer was effective during NCR without extinction, but the arbitrary reinforcer was ineffective.

Practice Recommendations for Addressing Problem Behaviors in Siblings with Autism Spectrum Disorder

Children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) display an increased prevalence of problem behavior, relative to the typically developing population. Given the heritability of ASD and its growing prevalence, clinicians who implement behavioral treatments are likely to encounter families with siblings with ASD who exhibit problem behavior. Thus, there is a need for guidance for treatment of problem behavior for these families. This paper presents strategies for conducting behavioral assessments, developing treatments for problem behaviors, caregiver training, and generalization strategies when there are multiple affected children in one family. A case study is presented to illustrate the key clinical decisions made to increase the likelihood of a successful treatment outcome for these families.

Systematic Review of Differential Reinforcement of Alternative Behavior Without Extinction for Individuals With Autism

The purpose of this article is to review the literature on differential reinforcement of alternative behavior procedures without extinction for individuals with autism. Using predetermined inclusion criteria, a total of 10 studies were included and summarized in terms of the following: (a) participant characteristics (e.g., sex, age, and diagnosis), (b) treatment setting, (c) problem behavior, (d) function, (e) alternative behavior, (f) intervention, (g) outcomes, and (h) conclusiveness of evidence. Of the 10 studies, nine demonstrated positive effects and one mixed effects. Five studies successfully reduced problem behavior by manipulating different reinforcement parameters (magnitude, immediacy, and quality) and four manipulated the schedule of reinforcement. One study had mixed results with two of the three participants requiring extinction. The findings of this review suggest that variations of differential reinforcement of alternative behavior interventions without an extinction component may be considered promising practices for the treatment of challenging behavior in individuals with autism.

Further evaluation of the high-probability instructional sequence with and without programmed reinforcement

In 2 experiments, we examined the effects of programmed reinforcement for compliance with high-probability (high-p) instructions on compliance with low-probability (low-p) instructions. In Experiment 1, we compared the high-p sequence with and without programmed reinforcement (i.e., edible items) for compliance with high-p instructions. Results showed that the high-p sequence increased compliance with low-p instructions only when compliance with high-p instructions was followed by reinforcement. In Experiment 2, we examined the role of reinforcer quality by delivering a lower quality reinforcer (praise) for compliance with high-p instructions. Results of Experiment 2 showed that the high-p sequence with lower quality reinforcement did not improve compliance with low-p instructions; the addition of a higher quality reinforcer (i.e., edible items) contingent on compliance with high-p instructions did increase compliance with low-p instructions.

The motivating operation and negatively reinforced problem behavior: a systematic review

The concept of motivational operations exerts an increasing influence on the understanding and assessment of problem behavior in people with intellectual and developmental disability. In this systematic review of 59 methodologically robust studies of the influence of motivational operations in negative reinforcement paradigms in this population, we identify themes related to situational and biological variables that have implications for assessment, intervention, and further research. There is now good evidence that motivational operations of differing origins influence negatively reinforced problem behavior, and that these might be subject to manipulation to facilitate favorable outcomes. There is also good evidence that some biological variables warrant consideration in assessment procedures as they predispose the person's behavior to be influenced by specific motivational operations. The implications for assessment and intervention are made explicit with reference to variables that are open to manipulation or that require further research and conceptualization within causal models.

Positive reinforcement as treatment for problem behavior maintained by negative reinforcement

Functional analyses (Iwata, Dorsey, Slifer, Bauman, & Richman, 1982/1994) have been useful in determining function-based treatments for problem behavior. Recently, however, researchers have evaluated the use of arbitrary reinforcers (e.g., positive reinforcers) to decrease problem behavior maintained by negative reinforcement, particularly in the absence of extinction. We provide a brief review of recent research on this topic and discuss implications regarding mechanisms, practice, and future research directions.

The effects of variable-time delivery of food items and praise on problem behavior reinforced by escape

Prior research indicates that reinforcement of an appropriate response (e.g., compliance) can produce concomitant reductions in problem behavior reinforced by escape when problem behavior continues to produce negative reinforcement (e.g., Lalli et al., 1999). These effects may be due to a preference for positive over negative reinforcement or to positive reinforcement acting as an abolishing operation, rendering demands less aversive and escape from demands less effective as negative reinforcement. In the current investigation, we delivered a preferred food item and praise on a variable-time 15-s schedule while providing escape for problem behavior on a fixed-ratio 1 schedule in a demand condition for 3 participants with problem behavior maintained by negative reinforcement. Results for all 3 participants showed that variable-time delivery of preferred edible items reduced problem behavior even though escape continued to be available for these responses. These findings are discussed in the context of motivating operations.