Brand placement and consumer choice: an in-store experiment

Effects of in-store marketing on food and beverage purchases: a longitudinal study of households with children

OBJECTIVE

Most food retailers display foods in prominent locations as a marketing strategy (i.e. 'placement promotions'). We examined the extent to which households with children change their food and beverage purchases in response to these promotions.

DESIGN

We analysed a novel dataset of all products promoted in two supermarkets from 2016 to 2017, including promotion dates and locations (e.g. aisle endcaps and front registers). We linked promotions to all purchases from the supermarkets from 2016 to 2017 by a cohort of households with children. We calculated the number of weekly promotions in each of thirteen food and beverage groups (e.g. bread; candy) and used fixed effects regressions to estimate associations between number of weekly promotions and households' weekly food purchases, overall and by Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) participation.

SETTING

Two large supermarkets in Maine, USA.

PARTICIPANTS

Eight hundred and twenty-one households with children.

RESULTS

Most promotions (74 %) were for less healthy foods. The most promoted food groups were sweet and salty snacks (mean = 131·0 promotions/week), baked goods (mean = 68·2) and sugar-sweetened beverages (mean = 41·6). Households generally did not change their food group purchases during weeks when they were exposed to more promotions for those groups, except that a 1-sd increase in endcap candy promotions (about 1 promotion/week) was associated with $0·19/week (about 14·5 %) increase in candy purchases among SNAP nonparticipants (adjusted P < 0·001).

CONCLUSIONS

In-store placement promotions for food groups were generally not associated with purchases of promoted food groups, perhaps because exposure to unhealthy food marketing was consistently high. Substantial changes to in-store food marketing may be needed to promote healthier purchases.

Real-life experiments in supermarkets to encourage healthy dietary-related behaviours: opportunities, challenges and lessons learned

BACKGROUND

Supermarkets are the primary source of food for many people yet their full potential as a setting to encourage healthy dietary-related behaviours remains underutilised. Sharing the experiences from research groups who have worked with supermarket chains to evaluate strategies that promote healthy eating could improve the efficiency of building such relationships and enhance the design quality of future research studies.

METHODS

A collective case study approach was used to synthesise experiences of engaging and sustaining research collaborations with national supermarket chains to test the effectiveness of health-focused in-store interventions. The collective narrative covers studies conducted in three high-income countries: Australia, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom.

RESULTS

We have distilled our experiences and lessons learned into six recommendations for conducting high quality public health research with commercial supermarket chains. These include: (i) using personal contacts, knowledge of supermarket activities and engaging executive management to establish a partnership and allowing time to build trust; (ii) using scientifically robust study designs with appropriate sample size calculations; (iii) formalising data exchange arrangements and allocating adequate resource for data extraction and re-categorisation; (iv) assessing effects at individual/households level where possible; (v) designing a mixed-methods process evaluation to measure intervention fidelity, dose and unintended consequences; and (vi) ensuring scientific independence through formal contract agreements.

CONCLUSIONS

Our collective experiences of working in non-financial partnerships with national supermarket chains could be useful for other research groups looking to develop and implement supermarket studies in an efficient manner. Further evidence from real-life supermarket interventions is necessary to identify sustainable strategies that can improve population diet and maintain necessary commercial outcomes.

Environmental cues for healthy food marketing: The importance of in-store research into three conversions

Since retailers control the space where consumers tend to make the vast majority of their food purchase decisions, they can take measures to promote healthy living. Increasing relative sales of healthy food can contribute to the ongoing battle against preventable lifestyle diseases. We show how retailers can use impression management and environmental cues in their stores to influence consumers' sales responses to healthy food. This paper advocates in-store research in this realm and introduces three consumer behavior levels - reaching, stopping/holding, and closing the sale - as micro-conversions when retailers use impression management on their consumers. We showcase impression management at each conversion level by testing the effects of placing healthy and unhealthy food items on a floor display in the store area with the most traffic, with or without background music and an advertisement. The results demonstrate that a healthy food product can outperform the sales of popular unhealthy foods. The floor display, for example, increased the sales of the targeted "healthy product" by 570% on average during the intervention periods, compared with the baseline. We discuss the importance of in-store research into three conversions to enable further development of impression management and the use of environmental cues for healthy food promotion.

A systematic review of the influences of food store product placement on dietary-related outcomes

Context

Product placement strategies have been used to influence customers’ food purchases in food stores for some time; however, assessment of the evidence that these techniques can limit unhealthy, and promote healthy, food choices has not been completed.

Objective

This systematic review aimed to determine how product placement strategies, availability, and positioning, in physical retail food stores located in high-income countries, influence dietary-related behaviors.

Data Sources

From a search of 9 databases, 38 articles, 17 observational studies, and 22 intervention studies met the study inclusion criteria.

Data Extraction

Two reviewers independently extracted data relating to study design, study population, exposures, outcomes, and key results. Each study was also assessed for risk of bias in relation to the research question.

Data Analysis

Meta-analysis was not possible owing to heterogeneous study designs and outcomes. As recommended by Cochrane, results were synthesized in effect direction plots using a vote-counting technique which recorded the direction of effect and significance level according to the expected relationship for health improvement.

Conclusions

The majority of studies showed that greater availability and more prominent positioning of healthy foods, or reduced availability and less prominent positioning of unhealthy foods, related to better dietary-related behaviors. A large number of results, however, were nonsignificant, which likely reflects the methodological difficulties inherent in this research field. Adequately powered intervention studies that test both the independent and additive effects of availability and positioning strategies are needed.

Systematic Review Registration

PROSPERO registration no. 42016048826

Impact of bottle size on in-home consumption of wine: a randomized controlled cross-over trial

AIM

To assess the impact of purchasing wine in 50 cl bottles compared with 75 cl bottles on the amount of wine consumed at home.

DESIGN

Cross-over randomized controlled trial with a 'usual behaviour' period of a maximum of 3 weeks between conditions.

SETTING

Households in the United Kingdom.

PARTICIPANTS

One hundred and eighty-six households that consumed between two and eight 75 cl bottles of wine each week.

INTERVENTION

Households were randomized to the order in which they purchased wine in two bottle sizes. During two 14-day intervention periods, households purchased a pre-set volume of wine-based on their baseline self-reported weekly consumption-in either 75 cl bottles or 50 cl bottles. On days 7 and 14 of each study period, participating households sent photographs of each purchased wine bottle.

MEASUREMENTS

The primary outcome was the volume of study wine in millilitres (ml) consumed during each study period estimated through returned photographs. The secondary outcome was the rate of consumption measured by the mean number of days taken to drink 1.5 litres from each bottle size.

FINDINGS

One hundred and sixty-six of 186 enrolled households satisfactorily completed the study. After accounting for pre-specified covariates, 191.1 ml [95% confidence interval (CI) = 42.03-339.2] or 4.5% (95% CI = 1.0-7.9%) more wine was consumed per 14-day period from 75-cl bottles than from 50-cl bottles. Consumption was 5.8% faster (95% CI = -10.9 to -0.4%) from 75 cl bottles than from 50 cl bottles.

CONCLUSIONS

Consuming wine at home from 50 cl bottles, compared with 75 cl bottles, may reduce both amount consumed and rate of consumption.

The Marketing Firm and the Consumer Organization: A Comparative Analysis With Special Reference to Charitable Organizations

The accurate delineation of various forms of business organization requires a comparative analysis of their objectives, functions, and organizational structures. In particular, this paper highlights differences in managerial work between business firms and non-profits exemplified by the charitable organization. It adopts as its template the theory of the marketing firm, a depiction of the modern corporation as it responds to the imperatives of customer-oriented management, namely consumer discretion and consumer sophistication. It describes in §2 the essentials of the theory and its basis in consumer behavior analysis, and outlines its unique position as the organization responsible for marketing transactions, based on objective exchange, competitive markets and prices, and the deployment of the entire marketing mix. §3 deals in greater depth with the objective, strategic functions, and organization of the marketing firm in terms of the concepts of metacontingency and bilateral contingency. §4 discusses how the marketing firm differs from charities in terms of goal separation, market-based pricing and competition, the entrepreneurial (strategic) process, the pursuit of customer-oriented management, and organizational structure. Particular attention is accorded the organizational differences between marketing firms and charities, which arise as a direct consequence of the distinct patterns of contingency they entail. §5 discusses the implications of the foregoing analysis and draws appropriate conclusions.

Sacco S, L. Pomeranz J. Marketing to Children in Supermarkets: An Opportunity for Public Policy to Improve Children's Diets

Public health experts worldwide are calling for a reduction of the marketing of nutrient-poor food and beverages to children. However, industry self-regulation and most government policies do not address in-store marketing, including shelf placement and retail promotions. This paper reports two U.S.-based studies examining the prevalence and potential impact of in-store marketing for nutrient-poor child-targeted products. Study 1 compares the in-store marketing of children's breakfast cereals with the marketing of other (family/adult) cereals, including shelf space allocation and placement, special displays and promotions, using a national audit of U.S. supermarkets. Child-targeted cereals received more shelf space, middle- and lower-shelf placements, special displays, and promotions compared with other cereals. Study 2 compares the proportion of product sales associated with in-store displays and promotions for child-targeted versus other fruit drinks/juices, using syndicated sales data. A higher proportion of child-targeted drink sales were associated with displays and promotions than sales of other drinks. In both categories, the results were due primarily to major company products. Although in-store marketing of child-targeted products likely appeals to both children and parents, these practices encourage children's consumption of nutrient-poor food and drinks. If companies will not voluntarily address in-store marketing to children, government policy options are available to limit the marketing of unhealthy foods in the supermarket.

Less healthy breakfast cereals are promoted more frequently in large supermarket chains in Canada

BACKGROUND

The majority of food expenditures are made in supermarkets and this environment influences our purchasing and food intake. Breakfast cereals are frequently marketed as healthy food choices. The objective of this study was to examine the frequency of in-store promotions for cold breakfast cereals in Canadian supermarkets and to determine whether healthier or less healthy breakfast cereals are promoted more frequently.

METHODS

Data was collected once per week over a four-week period from a convenience sample of the five largest Canadian supermarkets in the Ottawa/Gatineau area. Data collection included the number of shelf facings, promotional displays, and the cost of cereals/100 g. The UK Nutrient Profiling Model was used to determine the healthfulness of each breakfast cereal.

RESULTS

29.8% (n = 67) of the 225 unique cereals were classified as healthier and 70.2% (n = 158) were classified as less healthy. Less healthy cereals were displayed at eye level, in the profitable middle shelves, 2.9 times more frequently than healthier cereals. There were 5.3 times more breakfast cereal shelf facings, 4.2 more end cap displays, 1.7 more mid-aisle displays and 3.3 more special pricing signage for less healthy cereals compared to healthier cereals. Less healthy cereals had a significantly higher average total number of shelf facings compared to healthier cereals (t = -4.28 (280.8), p < .001).

CONCLUSIONS

Breakfast cereal manufacturers need to consider reformulation of their breakfast cereals to improve their healthfulness and supermarkets need to increase the marketing of healthy breakfast cereals within their stores.

The Use of Observational Technology to Study In-Store Behavior: Consumer Choice, Video Surveillance, and Retail Analytics

The store is the main laboratory for in-store experimental analysis. This article provides an introduction to a research program aimed at improving research practices in this laboratory, particularly emphasizing the importance of behavioral data and the new opportunities that technology offers. This complex modern-day Skinner box has sets of well-studied stimuli-behavior interactions that constantly adapt to the latest economic environment and as such constantly stretch the boundaries of behavioral analytic theory. However, the retail setting is highly important to applied behavior analysis for such issues as health, debt, environmental conservation, animal welfare, self-control, and consumer protection in general. This article presents a research strategy that emphasizes key environmental touch points throughout the customer journey in grocery retailing. We highlight the latest development by examining a particular research case and discussing the need for behavioral economic understanding of the start of the grocery journey, that is, the consumer choice of in-store product carrying equipment (e.g., cart, basket, or nothing). The conceptual system consists of a molecular four-term contingency framework as well as a more molar approach with conversion-rate modeling, where actual choice behavior is detected through video surveillance. The data are analyzed using a Shopper Flow© Tracking System in which software is designed to provide automatic data on shopper behavior and to assist human observers in tracking individual shopping trips. We discuss behavioral classifications, methodology, and implications related to the data from consumer tracking efforts.

Online Healthy Food Experiments: Capturing Complexity by Using Choice-Based Conjoint Analysis

The impact of complex environmental factors on consumer choices and preferences can be analyzed through the prism of consumer behavior analysis, whereas variations of marketing attributes and their impact on choice can be measured using conjoint analysis. Considering the case of the constantly growing online food selections, we discuss choice-based conjoint analysis and explore the opportunities for behavior analysts to examine the interrelationships of multiple variables and socially important choice settings, and to promote desired behaviors. We show a few examples of using trade-off analyses in online food retail to understand consumer behavior with respect to healthy food items. As demonstrated in these examples based on our own pilot research, conjoint analysis can be used for complex behavior-that which is not amenable directly to an experimental analysis-or as an efficient initial step before moving into further experiments or analyses using biometrics (e.g., eye-tracking) or web analytics conducted in different settings such as e-commerce, e-mail, social media, or on mobile platforms. This paper summarizes the personalized, data driven economic analysis that is possible with a choice-based conjoint analysis.

Do information, price, or morals influence ethical consumption? A natural field experiment and customer survey on the purchase of Fair Trade coffee

We address ethical consumption using a natural field experiment on the actual purchase of Fair Trade (FT) coffee in three supermarkets in Germany. Based on a quasi-experimental before-and-after design the effects of three different treatments - information, 20% price reduction, and a moral appeal - are analyzed. Sales data cover actual ethical purchase behavior and avoid problems of social desirability. But they offer only limited insights into the motivations of individual consumers. We therefore complemented the field experiment with a customer survey that allows us to contrast observed (ethical) buying behavior with self-reported FT consumption. Results from the experiment suggest that only the price reduction had the expected positive and statistically significant effect on FT consumption.

Changing the Food Environment for Obesity Prevention: Key Gaps and Future Directions

The food environment has a great impact on the nutritional health of the population. Food environment interventions have become a popular strategy to address the obesity epidemic. However, there are still significant gaps in our understanding of the most effective strategies to modify the food environment to improve health. In this review, we examine key gaps in the food environment intervention literature, including the need for: developing appropriate formative research plans when addressing the food environment; methods for selecting intervention domains and components; incorporating food producers and distributors in intervention strategies; strengthening evaluation of environmental interventions; building the evidence base for food environment interventions in diverse settings; engaging policy makers in the process of modifying the food environment; and creating systems science models to examine the costs and benefits of a potential program or policy on the food environment prior to implementation. In addition, we outline the need for strategies for addressing these issues including conducting additional pilot interventions, developing additional methodologies, and embracing the use of simulation models.

Method of assessing parent-child grocery store purchasing interactions using a micro-camcorder

The purpose of this study was to assess the validity of using participant worn micro-camcorders (PWMC) to collect data on parent-child food and beverage purchasing interactions in the grocery store. Parent-child dyads (n = 32) were met at their usual grocery store and shopping time. Parents were mostly Caucasian (n = 27, 84.4%), mothers (n = 30, 93.8%). Children were 2-6 years old with 15 girls and 17 boys. A micro-camcorder was affixed to a baseball style hat worn by the child. The dyad proceeded to shop while being shadowed by an in-person observer. Video/audio data were coded for behavioral and environmental variables. The PWMC method was compared to in-person observation to assess sensitivity and relative validity for measuring parent-child interactions, and compared to receipt data to assess criterion validity for evaluating purchasing decisions. Inter-rater reliability for coding video/audio data collected using the PWMC method was also assessed. The PWMC method proved to be more sensitive than in-person observation revealing on average 1.4 (p < 0.01) more parent-child food and beverage purchasing interactions per shopping trip. Inter-rater reliability for coding PWMC data showed moderate to almost perfect agreement (Cohen's kappa = 0.461-0.937). The PWMC method was significantly correlated with in-person observation for measuring occurrences of parent-child food purchasing interactions (rho = 0.911, p < 0.01) and characteristics of those interactions (rho = 0.345-0.850, p < 0.01). Additionally, there was substantial agreement between the PWMC method and receipt data for measuring purchasing decisions (Cohen's kappa = 0.787). The PWMC method proved to be well suited to assess parent-child food and beverage purchasing interactions in the grocery store.