The use of ultrasound in inflammatory bowel disease

Intestinal Ultrasound Identified Crohn's Disease In Previously Undiagnosed Siblings

We present the clinical cases of 3 brothers, 1 with confirmed diagnosis of Crohn’s disease (CD) and 2 with inconclusive findings by endoscopy and histology and demonstrate the utility of intestinal ultrasound in confirming the diagnosis of CD.

Ultrasound of the bowel with a focus on IBD: the new best practice

Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD) is a lifelong chronic disease affecting any part of the gastrointestinal tract with a predilection for the terminal ileum. IBD patients require repeat imaging throughout the course of their disease, necessitating a safe, noninvasive, available, and repeatable method. Imaging is required at diagnosis, routine surveillance, and acute exacerbation of disease. Ultrasound imaging meets these demands with a high degree of accuracy and wide patient acceptance. Ultrasound provides high-resolution imaging and is excellent for detailed evaluation of the bowel wall and surrounding soft tissues. Regular greyscale bowel evaluation and color Doppler imaging now have accepted standards for evaluating disease activity based on wall thickness, perienteric inflammatory fat, and blood flow, which is invaluable in staging and grading disease. High-resolution dynamic real-time imaging on ultrasound has the ability to show functional as well as morphologic detail, including dysfunctional peristalsis associated with bowel stricture and incomplete mechanical bowel obstruction. Fibrostenotic and penetrating complications of IBD may be associated with an acute or chronic presentation that is easily assessed using ultrasound. Newer software technologies for ultrasound, including Contrast-Enhanced ultrasound and Shear wave elastography, have transformed ultrasound from a basic preliminary imaging technique into a highly sophisticated modality that is now competitive with CT and MR enterography for managing IBD patients. Our long experience with ultrasound of the bowel suggests that the new best practice would include ultrasound as the first test for evaluation of the bowel at any stage of the disease.

Application Value of Endoscopic Ultrasonography in Diagnosis and Treatment of Inflammatory Bowel Disease

Inflammatory bowel disease refers to a group of non-specific inflammatory illnesses affecting the gastrointestinal tract. According to pathogenic characteristics, it is divided into Ulcerative colitis and Crohn's disease. The exact cause and pathogenic mechanism of these disorders are not yet fully understood. In addition, there is currently no definitive diagnostic method for inflammatory bowel disease, which mainly depends on clinical symptoms, blood testing, imaging investigations, and endoscopic examination, which includes histology. Endoscopic Ultrasonography is a digestive tract examination technique that combines endoscopy and ultrasound. Compared to conventional endoscopy, it can visualize surface and deep lesions of the gastrointestinal wall, as well as provide information on the characteristics of the surrounding layers and nearby lymph nodes. Due to these advantages, Endoscopic Ultrasonography has played a significant role in the evaluation of inflammatory bowel disease in recent years. Through this work, we aim to identify the applications of this method in the case of patients with inflammatory bowel disease.

18F-FDG-PET and other imaging modalities in the diagnosis and management of inflammatory bowel disease

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), which encompasses ulcerative colitis (UC) and Crohn's disease (CD), is a chronic inflammatory condition of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract that presents complex diagnostic and management challenges. Early detection and treatment of IBD is paramount, as IBD can present with serious complications, including bowel perforation, arthritis, and colorectal cancer. Most forms of diagnosis and therapeutic management, like ileocolonoscopy and upper endoscopy are highly invasive and require extensive preparation at great discomfort to patients. 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose-positron emission tomography (18F-FDG-PET) imaging can be a potential solution to the current limitations in imaging for IBD. This review explores the utility and limitations of various imaging modalities used to detect and manage IBD including ileocolonoscopy, magnetic resonance enterography (MRE), gastrointestinal ultrasound (IUS), and 18F-FDG-PET/computed tomography (18F-FDG-PET/CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (18F-FDG-PET/MR). This review has an emphasis on PET imaging and highlights its benefits in detection, management, and monitoring therapeutic response of UC and CD.

Dynamic changes in extracellular vesicle-associated miRNAs elicited by ultrasound in inflammatory bowel disease patients

Blood-based biomarkers that reliably indicate disease activity in the intestinal tract are an important unmet need in the management of patients with IBD. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are cell-derived membranous microparticles, which reflect the cellular and functional state of their site of site of origin. As ultrasound waves may lead to molecular shifts of EV contents, we hypothesized that application of ultrasound waves on inflamed intestinal tissue in IBD may amplify the inflammation-specific molecular shifts in EVs like altered EV-miRNA expression, which in turn can be detected in the peripheral blood. 26 patients with IBD were included in the prospective clinical study. Serum samples were collected before and 30 min after diagnostic transabdominal ultrasound. Differential miRNA expression was analyzed by sequencing. Candidate inducible EV-miRNAs were functionally assessed in vitro by transfection of miRNA mimics and qPCR of predicted target genes. Serum EV-miRNA concentration at baseline correlated with disease severity, as determined by clinical activity scores and sonographic findings. Three miRNAs (miR-942-5p, mir-5588, mir-3195) were significantly induced by sonography. Among the significantly regulated EV-miRNAs, miR-942-5p was strongly induced in higher grade intestinal inflammation and correlated with clinical activity in Crohn's disease. Prediction of target regulation and transfection of miRNA mimics inferred a role of this EV-miRNA in regulating barrier function in inflammation. Induction of mir-5588 and mir-3195 did not correlate with inflammation grade. This proof-of-concept trial highlights the principle of induced molecular shifts in EVs from inflamed tissue through transabdominal ultrasound. These inducible EVs and their molecular cargo like miRNA could become novel biomarkers for intestinal inflammation in IBD.

Clinical Application of Intestinal Ultrasound in Inflammatory Bowel Disease

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Intestinal ultrasound (IUS) is a non-invasive, accurate, and well-tolerated tool that provides real-time assessment of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) activity and is therefore an ideal monitoring tool. This review describes the evolving role of IUS in each phase of clinical management of IBD.

RECENT FINDINGS

Accumulating evidence has demonstrated that IUS is an excellent tool for the assessment of suspected IBD, with a very high negative predictive value. It accurately assesses disease activity, disease complications, and in the pre-treatment phase, provides a benchmark for subsequent follow-up. IUS can detect early therapeutic response and correlates well with other established monitoring modalities with arguably superior predictive capabilities and ability to assess a deeper degree of remission, transmural healing (TH). IUS has a crucial role in the management of IBD and has ushered in a new era of monitoring with more rapid evaluation and the opportunity for early optimization, deeper therapeutic targets, and improved outcomes.

[Imaging Techniques and Differential Diagnosis for Inflammatory Bowel Disease]

The two main types of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) are Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis. Currently, when IBD is suspected, CT enterography is widely used as an initial imaging test because it can evaluate both the bowel wall and the outside of the bowel, helping to differentiate IBD from other diseases. When IBD is suspected, it is necessary to distinguish between Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis. In most cases this is not difficult; however, in some cases, it is difficult and such cases are called IBD-unclassified. CT findings are often non-specific for ulcerative colitis, making it difficult to differentiate it from other diseases using imaging alone. In contrast, characteristic CT findings for Crohn's disease are often helpful in diagnosis, although diseases, such as tuberculous enteritis can mimic Crohn's disease. Recently, mutations in the gene encoding a prostaglandin transporter called SLCO2A1 have been discovered as the cause of the disease in some patients with multiple ulcers and strictures, similar to Crohn's disease. Therefore, genetic testing is being used to make a differential diagnosis.

Intestinal ultrasound as a non-invasive tool to monitor inflammatory bowel disease activity and guide clinical decision making

Intestinal ultrasound (IUS) is a non-invasive, real-time, cross-sectional imaging tool that can be used at the point-of-care to assess disease activity in patients with Crohn’s disease or ulcerative colitis. IUS promotes quick and impactful treatment decisions that can modify disease progression and enhance patient compliance. This review will summarize the technical aspects of IUS, the evidence to support the use of IUS in disease activity monitoring, the comparison of IUS to current standard of care monitoring modalities such as colonoscopy and calprotectin, and the optimal positioning of IUS in a tight-control monitoring strategy.

Intestinal Ultrasound in Inflammatory Bowel Disease: A Novel and Increasingly Important Tool

New and efficacious medical therapies have become available that have greatly enhanced clinicians' ability to manage inflammatory bowel diseases (IBDs). IBD activity should be assessed regularly in scheduled examinations as the part of a treat-to-target strategy for IBD care. The gold-standard approach to investigating IBD is colonoscopy, but this is an invasive procedure. Intestinal ultrasound (IUS) has played a crucial role in recent years regarding the assessment of IBD activity because it is noninvasive, safe, reproducible, and inexpensive. IUS findings could inform changes in therapeutic interventions for IBDs; this would necessitate fewer endoscopies and enable faster decision-making processes. Furthermore, patients are accepting and tolerant of IUS examinations. This review outlines the current evidence and gives indication regarding the use of IUS in the management of IBDs.

The knowledge and skills needed to perform intestinal ultrasound for inflammatory bowel diseases-an international Delphi consensus survey

BACKGROUND

Intestinal ultrasound (IUS) is a non-invasive modality for monitoring disease activity in inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD). IUS training currently lacks well-defined standards and international consensus on competency criteria.

AIM

To achieve international consensus on what competencies should be expected from a newly certified IUS practitioner.

METHODS

A three-round, iterative Delphi process was conducted among 54 IUS experts from 17 countries. Round 1 was a brainstorming phase with an open-ended question to identify the knowledge and skills that experts believe a newly certified IUS practitioner should possess. The experts' suggestions were then organised into statements by a Steering Committee. In round 2, the experts commented upon and rated the statements, which were revised accordingly. In round 3, the experts rated the revised statements. Statements meeting the pre-defined consensus criterion of at least 70% agreement were included in the final list of statements.

RESULTS

In total, 858 items were suggested by the experts in the first round. Based on these suggestions, 55 statements were organised into three categories: knowledge, technical skills and interpretation skills. After the second round, 53 revised statements remained. After the final round, a total of 41 statements had achieved consensus.

CONCLUSIONS

We established international, expert consensus on the knowledge and skills that should be expected from newly certified IUS practitioners. These consensus statements are the first step towards mastery learning for IUS training. Educators can utilise these statements to design training programmes and evaluate the competencies of trainees before they engage in independent practice.

Toward transmural healing: Sonographic healing is associated with improved long-term outcomes in patients with Crohn's disease

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Transmural healing has emerged as a treatment target in Crohn's disease (CD). We investigated whether transmural healing assessed with intestinal ultrasound (IUS) is associated with improved clinical outcomes in patients with CD in clinical remission.

METHODS

Patients with CD in clinical remission at baseline (HBI <4) having IUS between August 2017 and June 2020 with at least 6-months' follow-up were retrospectively studied. Time to medication escalation, corticosteroid use and CD-related hospitalisation or surgery were compared by the presence or absence of sonographic healing, defined as bowel wall thickness ≤3 mm without hyperemia on color Doppler, inflammatory fat, or disrupted bowel wall stratification. Factors associated with survival were analyzed by Kaplan-Meier analysis using Cox proportional-hazard model.

RESULTS

Of 202 consecutive patients (50% male), sonographic inflammation was present in 61%. During median follow-up of 19 (IQR 13-27) months, medication escalation occurred in 52%, corticosteroid use in 23%, hospitalisation in 21%, and CD-related surgery in 13%. Sonographic healing was significantly associated with a reduced risk of medication escalation (p = 0.0018), corticosteroid use (p = 0.0247), hospitalisation (p = 0.0102), and surgery (p = 0.083). On multivariable analysis, sonographic healing was significantly associated with an increased odds of medication escalation-free survival (hazard ratio [HR]:1.94; 95% CI 1.23-3.06; p = 0.004) and corticosteroid-free survival (HR:2.41; 95% CI 1.24-4.67; p = 0.009), but not with hospitalisation or surgery.

CONCLUSION

In patients with CD in clinical remission, sonographic healing is associated with improved clinical outcomes. Further studies are needed to determine whether sonographic healing should be a treatment target.

Impact of intestinal ultrasound with a portable system in the management of Crohn's disease

Background

Intestinal ultrasound (IUS) is a valid cross-sectional imaging technique for the evaluation of Crohn’s disease (CD). With advancements in technology, portable ultrasound systems are becoming widely available, and the inevitable change to their use by non-radiologist clinicians would be a valuable contribution to improving patient care. This study aimed to investigate the diagnostic yield of IUS examination performed by a gastroenterologist with a portable system as an adjunct imaging modality in the routine care of CD patients.

Methods

A total of 117 CD patients were assessed by IUS imaging. Pre- and post-IUS clinical-management decisions were recorded. The primary outcome was to evaluate the change in the patients’ clinical-management decision following the IUS examination. The diagnostic accuracy was compared against the reference decision reached via a multidisiplinary meeting after the evaluation of all patient-related data. The endoscopic disease activity was determined using the simple endoscopic score for Crohn's disease (SES-CD).

Results

The initial clinical-management decision was changed in 47 patients (40.2%) after the IUS examination (P = 0.001). The accuracy of patient-management decisions improved from 63.2% to 90.6% in comparison to reference decisions (P < 0.001). After IUS examination, a further 13 cases (11.1%) were identified for urgent surgical/interventional procedures. The accuracy of colonoscopic (SES-CD ≥3) assessment was shown to be comparable to that of IUS (94% vs 91%). The sensitivity for disease presence was 95% with colonoscopy and 94% with the IUS assessment.

Conclusion

IUS examination with the use of a portable ultrasonography system significantly improves clinical-management decisions. With further supporting data, this practice would possibly become a requirement for CD management.

The role of the intestinal ultrasound in Crohn's disease diagnosis and monitoring

Crohn's disease is characterized by persistent or recurrent chronic inflammation that may affect any segment of the gastrointestinal tract. It has an oscillating evolution, with periods of activity alternating with periods of remission. Crohn's disease has a significant impact on the economic status due to its increasing prevalence, often affecting young people. Suitable management for these patients involves frequent evaluations. Even though colonoscopy is the gold standard for the assessment of severity and mucosal healing, it is an invasive maneuver, not easily accepted by patients, and it does not have good repeatability. Intestinal ultrasound has the advantage of being non-irradiating, non-invasive, well-tolerated, cheap, and easy to repeat. Ultrasound parameters such as bowel wall thickness, intestinal wall architecture, intramural vascularisation, proliferation of mesenteric fatty conjunctive tissue, and intraperitoneal fluid can provide good information regarding the severity of the disease, the differentiation between remission and relapse, and its complications. Some of the latest studies show good correlations between ultrasound parameters and inflammation markers (C-reactive protein, fecal calprotectin) and clinical severity scores of Crohn's disease. Consequently, the importance of intestinal ultrasound has increased lately, and recent studies support its use to evaluate the severity of inflammation, differentiate between active disease and relapse, monitor therapy response and guide treatment, evaluate prognosis, and diagnose complications.

Utility of bowel ultrasound in assessing disease activity in Crohn's disease

BACKGROUND

Gastrointestinal ultrasound (GIUS) has been used increasingly for monitoring inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) patients. The aim of this study was to assess the utility of GIUS in assessing disease activity in Crohn's disease (CD).

METHODS

Consecutive patients with CD (diagnosis established for at least 6 months) between July 2017 and July 2018 requiring assessment of disease activity were prospectively assessed by magnetic resonance enterography, colonoscopy (CS), and GIUS within a 2-week period and without any change in ongoing treatment. Features on GIUS which correlated with disease activity were assessed. Sensitivity and specificity of the GIUS in assessing disease activity and localization were calculated.

RESULTS

Thirty-five patients were enrolled in the study. Bowel wall thickness (BWT) ≥ 3 mm and Doppler activity ≥ 2 had the highest sensitivity (100% and 95.6%, respectively) for detecting active disease on CS. BWT ≥ 3 mm had sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value, and negative predictive value of 100%, 83.3%, 92%, and 100%, respectively for assessing active disease. Combination of median BWT, Doppler activity, and loss of bowel wall stratification correlated with simplified endoscopic score (SES) for CD (r = 0.8, p 0.009) and Harvey-Bradshaw index (HBI, r = 0.76, p 0.04). For localizing active disease in the ileum, GIUS had a sensitivity of 93.7%, 80% for lesions in the right colon, 100% for transverse colon, and 89% for the left colon. Specificity was 100% for ileal and colonic lesions.

CONCLUSION

Loss of stratification, BWT, and Doppler activity in the bowel wall correlate with endoscopic and clinical disease activity in CD. GIUS is a sensitive modality in assessing disease activity in CD.

Correlation between ultrasound consolidated score and simple endoscopic score for determining the activity of Crohn's disease

OBJECTIVES

The aim of this study was to develop an ultrasound consolidated score (UCS) in determining the activity of Crohn's disease (CD) and evaluate it with reference to simple endoscopic score (SES).

METHODS

From June 2014 to June 2017, 66 patients with CD were retrospectively enrolled in this study. Each patient underwent endoscopy and transabdominal ultrasound (US) examination. The morphological symmetry, echogenicity of bowel wall, bowel wall layer structure, echogenicity of peri-bowel fat, bowel wall thickness (BWT), and Limberg type on power Doppler US were assessed with transabdominal US, and an UCS scoring system was developed based on these characteristics. Endoscopic results were used as the reference standard and SES was calculated to determine the CD activity. Receiver operating characteristic curve analysis was performed to assess the diagnostic performance for determining CD activity and the correlation between UCS and SES was assessed using Spearman correlation analysis.

RESULTS

330 intestinal segments in 66 patients were included. The UCS of the segments in the remission phase ranged from 3.0 to 9.0 (mean, 3.6 ± 0.9) whereas in the active phase from 3.0 to 20.0 (mean, 10.6 ± 4.0) (p < 0.001). The cut-off value of UCS was 6. The associated area under ROC curve, sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value, negative predictive value, and accuracy were 0.980, 88.3%, 95.5%, 93.8%, 91.3%, and 92.3%, respectively. The correlation coefficient between UCS and SES was 0.90, which was higher than the correlation coefficient of 0.83 between BWT and SES.

CONCLUSIONS

The newly developed UCS with transabdominal US has a good performance and potentially provides an effective alternative for evaluating the activity of CD.

ADVANCES IN KNOWLEDGE

UCS is an effective method to evaluate the activity of CD because it provides comprehensive information of the disease. Therefore, it could be employed as an alternative for diagnosis of CD.

Imaging Inflammation and Infection in the Gastrointestinal Tract

A variety of seemingly non-specific symptoms manifest within the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, particularly in the colon, in response to inflammation, infection, or a combination thereof. Differentiation between symptom sources can often be achieved using various radiologic studies. Although it is not possible to provide a comprehensive survey of imaging gastrointestinal GI tract infections in a single article, the purpose of this review is to survey several topics on imaging of GI tract inflammation and infections. The review discusses such modalities as computed tomography, positron emission tomography, ultrasound, endoscopy, and magnetic resonance imaging while looking at up-an-coming technologies that could improve diagnoses and patient comfort. The discussion is accomplished through examining a combination of organ-based and organism-based approaches, with accompanying selected case examples. Specific focus is placed on the bacterial infections caused by Shigella spp., Escherichia coli, Clostridium difficile, Salmonella, and inflammatory conditions of diverticulitis and irritable bowel disease. These infectious and inflammatory diseases and their detection via molecular imaging will be compared including the appropriate differential diagnostic considerations.

CT-Visualized Colonic Mural Stratification Independently Predicts the Need for Medical or Surgical Rescue Therapy in Hospitalized Ulcerative Colitis Patients

BACKGROUND

Severe ulcerative colitis is associated with significant morbidity. Multidetector computed tomography (MDCT) scans are frequently obtained upon hospital admission, but the ability of radiographic findings to predict steroid failure is unknown.

AIM

To identify MDCT features predictive of inpatient rescue in hospitalized UC.

METHODS

Patients hospitalized with UC who underwent a CT scan within 48 h of hospitalization were retrospectively identified. Radiologists blinded to the outcome prospectively evaluated CT scans for the presence of bowel wall thickening, stranding, and hyperenhancement as well as mural stratification, mesenteric hyperemia, and proximal dilation. Logistic regression adjusting for potential confounders was used to test the independent association between radiographic findings and need for rescue therapy.

RESULTS

The study cohort included 74 patients. The mean age of the group was 45 years, and two-thirds (66%) were male. Twenty-eight (38%) patients required either inpatient medical rescue or colectomy. The mean number of positive radiographic findings was 4.4 (range 2-6) with a higher median number of findings in those who required rescue therapy (5 vs. 4, p = 0.03). Mural stratification was significantly more common among those who required rescue therapy (92% vs. 49%, p = 0.001). No other radiographic findings were independently associated with inpatient rescue. On multivariable analysis, mural stratification (OR 14.9, 95% CI 2.76-80.2) and number of positive findings (OR 2.10, 95% CI 1.06-4.16) remained independently predictive of the need for rescue therapy.

CONCLUSIONS

Mural stratification was highly predictive of steroid refractoriness and need for medical or surgical rescue therapy in hospitalized UC.

Dietary Support in Elderly Patients with Inflammatory Bowel Disease

Ageing of the human population has become a big challenge for health care systems worldwide. On the other hand, the number of elderly patients with inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is also increasing. Considering the unique clinical characteristics of this subpopulation, including many comorbidities and polypharmacy, the current therapeutic guidelines for the management of IBD should be individualized and applied with caution. This is why the role of non-pharmacological treatments is of special significance. Since both IBD and older age are independent risk factors of nutritional deficiencies, appropriate dietary support should be an important part of the therapeutic approach. In this review paper we discuss the interrelations between IBD, older age, and malnutrition. We also present the current knowledge on the utility of different diets in the management of IBD. Considering the limited data on how to support IBD therapy by nutritional intervention, we focus on the Mediterranean and Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension diets, which seem to be the most beneficial in this patient group. We also discuss some new findings on their hypothetical anti-inflammatory influence on the course of IBD.

Contrast-Enhanced Ultrasound and Shear Wave Elastography Evaluation of Crohn's Disease Activity in Three Adolescent Patients

Characterizing inflammation and fibrosis in Crohn's disease (CD) is necessary to guide clinical management, but distinguishing the two remains challenging. Novel ultrasound (US) techniques: contrast-enhanced US (CEUS) and shear wave elastography (SWE) offer great potential in evaluating disease activity in pediatric patients. Three patients ages 16 to 20 with known CD underwent CEUS and SWE to characterize bowel wall inflammation and fibrosis. Magnetic resonance enterography, endoscopy, or surgical pathology findings are also described when available. The patients' disease activity included acute inflammation, chronic inflammation with stricture formation, and a fibrotic surgical anastomosis without inflammation. CEUS was useful in determining the degree of inflammation, and SWE identified bowel wall fibrosis. Used together these techniques allow for better characterization of the degree of fibrosis and inflammation in bowel strictures. With further validation CEUS and SWE may allow for improved characterization of bowel strictures and disease flares in pediatric patients suffering from CD.

Beyond appendicitis: ultrasound findings of acute bowel pathology

Bowel pathology is a common unexpected finding on routine abdominal and pelvic ultrasound. However, radiologists are often unfamiliar with the ultrasound appearance of the gastrointestinal tract due to the underutilization of ultrasound for bowel evaluation in the USA. The purpose of this article is to familiarize radiologists with the characteristic ultrasound features of a variety of bowel pathologies. Basic ultrasound technique for bowel evaluation, ultrasound appearance of normal bowel, and key ultrasound features of common acute bowel abnormalities will be reviewed.

Small bowel imaging in Crohn's disease patients

Crohn’s disease (CD) is a lifelong, chronic inflammatory bowel disorder. The small bowel (SB) is involved to varying extents, and the clinical course may vary from an inflammatory type to a more complicated one with stricture, fistula, and abscess formation. Esophagogastroduodenoscopy and ileocolonoscopy with biopsies are the conventional endoscopic techniques that usually establish the diagnosis. On the other hand, CD may affect SB segments that cannot be reached through these procedures. Video capsule endoscopy and enteroscopy are additional endoscopic techniques that may allow further SB evaluation in such circumstances. Computed tomographic enterography, magnetic resonance enterography, and ultrasonography are radiologic techniques that serve as a crucial adjunct to endoscopic assessment. They enable the assessment of parts of the bowel that may be difficult to reach with conventional endoscopy; this allows for the detection of active inflammation, penetrating or stricturing disease, and the appreciation of extraintestinal complications. Both endoscopic and radiologic modalities play a role in establishing the diagnosis of CD, as well as determining the disease extent, activity and response to therapy. This review is intended to evaluate these modalities in terms of specificity, sensitivity, potential side-effects, and limiting factors. This should serve as a guide to the clinician for establishing the most appropriate and reliable test within a particular clinical context.

Intestinal ultrasound and management of small bowel Crohn's disease

As Crohn's disease (CD) is predominantly located within the small bowel, imaging of the small bowel plays an intriguing role in the primary diagnosis as well as in the monitoring of patients with CD. Intestinal ultrasound (IUS) offers several advantages over endoscopy and other imaging modalities. Obvious advantages of IUS include noninvasiveness, rapid availability and cost effectiveness. IUS has been shown to have high accuracy in detecting small bowel CD and determining intra- and extramural complications such as stenoses, fistulae and abscesses. IUS has also been shown to be highly effective in determining postoperative disease recurrence and in follow up of patients under treatment. The following review summarizes current developments in the use of IUS for the detection of small bowel lesions and complications. The aim of this review is to suggest algorithms on how to use IUS in managing patients with small bowel CD in clinical practice. Suggested applications on the use of high frequency IUS in CD are extended by discussing new developments such as contrast-enhanced ultrasonography and elastography.