Bronchoscopy for the diagnosis of peripheral lung lesions

Ultrathin bronchoscopy versus conventional bronchoscopy in the diagnosis of peripheral pulmonary lesions: a systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Ultrathin bronchoscopy (UTB) is commonly used to diagnose peripheral pulmonary lesions due to its small diameter. However, there is no consensus on its comparison with conventional bronchoscopy (CB) combined with various guiding modalities.

METHODS

A comprehensive literature search was performed to identify studies comparing UTB and CB, extracting data on diagnostic yield, operating time, complications, pathological diagnoses, and lesion size. Protocol registration: identifier CRD42024554649. PRISMA guidelines were followed.

RESULTS

This meta-analysis included 11 studies with 2,640 patients. UTB demonstrated a significantly higher diagnostic yield (70.5% vs. 57.6%, p = 0.005), particularly with rEBUS and fluoroscopy (p = 0.02). UTB had a higher complication rate, but the difference was not significant (p = 0.37). It also had a shorter operative time than CB-GS (p = 0.007). UTB showed a significant advantage in diagnosing malignant tumors, especially adenocarcinoma and metastatic cancer (p = 0.02, p = 0.03). Both techniques were comparable in diagnosing benign conditions, but UTB outperformed CB in all lesion size categories (p < 0.01).

CONCLUSIONS

UTB's smaller diameter likely provides a diagnostic advantage over CB and CB-GS by enabling deeper and more accurate access to peripheral lung regions.

Comparison of the application value of contrast-enhanced ultrasound and contrast-enhanced CT in puncture biopsy of peripheral pulmonary lesions

Objective

This study assesses the clinical utility of contrast - enhanced ultrasound (CEUS) in comparison to contrast - enhanced computed tomography (CECT) in the context of peripheral lung mass biopsy. The overarching objective is to establish robust clinical benchmarks that can guide evidence - based decision - making in the field of pulmonary interventional procedures.

Methods

A comparison of 420 patients admitted to our hospital from January 2019 to December 2022 who underwent biopsy using two different guidance methods, including 196 cases in the CEUS-guided biopsy group and 224 cases in the CECT-guided biopsy group. The average number of pleural punctures, puncture time, satisfaction with the first puncture specimen, diagnostic accuracy and complication rate were compared between the two guidance methods.

Results

① Compared with the CECT group, the CEUS-guided group required fewer pleural punctures (2.5 vs. 4.1 times) and shorter puncture time (24 minutes vs. 42 minutes) on average, and the difference was statistically significant (P<0.001). ② In terms of complications, the incidence of pneumothorax (3.1% vs. 8%) was lower in the CEUS group, while the incidence of bleeding (1.5% vs. 3.1%) had no significant difference between the two groups ③ When the diameter of the lesion is <3 cm, the specimen satisfaction and diagnostic accuracy of the CEUS group are lower than those of the CECT group (71.0% vs. 88.3%, 64.5% vs. 86.7%). When the diameter of the lesion is (3 ~ 6cm), the specimen satisfaction and diagnostic accuracy of the CEUS group were higher than those of the CECT group (98.6% vs. 89.6%, 95.8% vs. 85.2%), and the above differences were statistically significant; but when the diameter of the lesion was >6cm, there was no significant difference in specimen satisfaction rate and diagnostic accuracy between the two guidance methods.

Conclusion

CEUS is better than CECT in reducing the number of punctures, shortening puncture time and reducing the incidence of pneumothorax, and is especially suitable for the diagnosis of medium-sized lesions. However, for lesions less than 3 cm in diameter, CECT demonstrated higher specimen satisfaction and diagnostic accuracy. This suggests that diagnostic performance can be optimized by selecting appropriate guidance techniques based on lesion size and risk of complications.

Diagnostic Yield of CE-EBUS in Mediastinal and Hilar Lymphadenopathy: A Preliminary Study

Background/Objectives: Contrast-enhanced endobronchial ultrasound (CE-EBUS) is a minimally invasive technique that combines traditional endobronchial ultrasound (EBUS) with a contrast agent (sulfur hexafluoride), enhancing the visualization of blood flow in mediastinal and hilar lymph nodes. This study aimed to assess the use of CE-EBUS in patients with advanced neoplasms and hilar or mediastinal lymphadenopathy, particularly to improve diagnostic accuracy and expedite sample collection. Methods: A retrospective observational study was conducted from April 2021 to December 2023, involving 49 patients divided into two groups: EBUS (n = 26) and CE-EBUS (n = 23). Patients had advanced neoplasms with hilar and mediastinal lymphadenopathy, including bulky masses and nodal metastases with central necrosis. In the CE-EBUS group, 4.8 mL of sulfur hexafluoride was administered intravenously. Morphological, echogenic, and vascular characteristics, diagnostic accuracy, sample collection adequacy and molecular testing were compared between the groups. Results: The diagnostic accuracy in CE-EBUS was similar to EBUS (21 vs. 19 patients), with no significant difference (p = 0.100). However, for patients with bulky masses and necrosis, the molecular assessment rate was significantly higher in the CE-EBUS group (81.8%) compared to the EBUS group (33.3%) (p = 0.014). Conclusions: CE-EBUS-TBNA could improve the accuracy of molecular assessments in patients with bulky, necrotic lymphadenopathy and could help collect vital neoplastic tissue for molecular testing.

Virtual bronchoscopic navigation and guided radial endobronchial ultrasound for peripheral pulmonary lesions: harmonizing modalities to optimize accuracy

Peripheral pulmonary lesions (PPLs) present a significant diagnostic challenge due to their location beyond the reach of traditional bronchoscopy. With lung cancer being the leading cause of cancer-related mortality worldwide, accurate and early diagnosis of PPLs is crucial. Virtual bronchoscopic navigation (VBN) combined with radial endobronchial ultrasound (R-EBUS) has emerged as a promising technique to enhance the diagnostic yield for these lesions. This retrospective observational study evaluated the diagnostic yield of VBN-guided R-EBUS in patients with PPLs identified on computed tomography. The study included nine patients who underwent VBN-guided R-EBUS biopsy sampling. Patient demographics, lesion characteristics, and procedural outcomes were analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics. The mean age of the patients was 57.33 years, with a mean lesion size of 3.24 cm. The diagnostic yield of VBN-guided R-EBUS was 77.7% (95% confidence interval: 68.5-85.8%). Non-small cell carcinoma was the most frequent histopathological diagnosis (55.5%). Complications included bleeding in two patients (22.2%) and bronchospasm in one patient (11.1%), all managed conservatively. VBN-guided R-EBUS provides high diagnostic accuracy and a low risk of complications in patients with PPLs.

Pulmonary endoscopy - central to an interventional pulmonology program

INTRODUCTION

Pulmonary endoscopy occupies a central role in Interventional Pulmonology and is frequently the mainstay of diagnosis of respiratory disease, in particular lung malignancy. Older techniques such as rigid bronchoscopy maintain an important role in central airway obstruction. Renewed interest in the peripheral pulmonary nodule is driving major advances in technologies to increase the diagnostic accuracy and advance new potential endoscopic therapeutic options.

AREAS COVERED

This paper describes the role of pulmonary endoscopy, in particular ultrasound in the diagnosis and staging of lung malignancy. We will explore the recent expansion of ultrasound to include endoscopic ultrasound - bronchoscopy (EUS-B) and combined ultrasound (CUS) techniques. We will discuss in detail the advances in the workup of the peripheral pulmonary nodule.We performed a non-systematic, narrative review of the literature to summarize the evidence regarding the indications, diagnostic yield, and safety of current bronchoscopic sampling techniques.

EXPERT OPINION

EBUS/EUS-B has revolutionized the diagnosis and staging of thoracic malignancy resulting in more accurate assessment of the mediastinum compared to mediastinoscopy alone, thus reducing the rate of futile thoracotomies. Although major advances in the assessment of the peripheral pulmonary nodule have been made, the role of endoscopy in this area requires further clarification and investigation.

First report of a successful surgical management of left atrial myxoma coexisting with pulmonary squamous cell carcinoma and thymic cyst

BACKGROUND

Primary cardiac tumors, while rare, present significant clinical challenges due to their diverse pathology and presentation. Lung cancer frequently metastasizes to the heart; however, cases involving primary cardiac tumors of different origins alongside primary lung cancer are exceedingly rare in the literature.

CASE PRESENTATION

We report the case of a 53-year-old female who presented with hemoptysis and was subsequently diagnosed with a left atrial myxoma, pulmonary squamous cell carcinoma, and a thymic cyst. This coexistence of multiple non-homologous tumors in a single patient is exceedingly rare.

CONCLUSION

This case underscores the complexity of diagnosing and managing patients with multiple distinct tumors. The simultaneous occurrence of a primary cardiac myxoma, pulmonary squamous cell carcinoma, and thymic cyst is unprecedented, providing valuable insights for future clinical practice.

Tract creation with a 25-gauge needle for convex endobronchial ultrasound-guided core biopsy in intrapulmonary lesions adjacent to bronchi: three case reports

Background

The use of endobronchial ultrasound-guided core biopsy (EBUS-CB) using forceps or cryoprobes to obtain true histological samples has improved the diagnostic yield for mediastinal and hilar lymphadenopathy. Tract creation in the bronchial wall of the central airway is primarily performed using electrocautery devices in EBUS-CB; however, their poor maneuverability and the risk of vascular injury and damage to the tip of the bronchoscope have prevented the application of EBUS-CB for diagnosing intrapulmonary lesions beyond the central locations. This report presents three cases wherein a 25-gauge transbronchial needle aspiration (TBNA) needle with high flexibility and safety was used to create a tract in the bronchial wall for EBUS-CB of the intrapulmonary lesions adjacent to the bronchi.

Case Description

In all cases, EBUS-TBNA using a 25-gauge TBNA needle was performed on the intrapulmonary lesions adjacent to the bronchi, followed by EBUS-CB with 1.9-mm forceps in two cases and also with a 1.1-mm cryoprobe in one case. The EBUS-TBNA specimens revealed no abnormality or only a small number of tumor cells. However, subsequent EBUS-CB, through the tract created by EBUS-TBNA, enabled the collection of a sufficient amount of histological samples with well-preserved histoarchitecture. The histological diagnosis was made via immunostaining, and multigene mutation testing was also successfully analyzed.

Conclusions

The use of a 25-gauge needle for creating a tract allows EBUS-CB for the intrapulmonary lesions and may allow for the collection of sufficient histological samples for biomarker analysis and tissue diagnosis.

Ultrasound versus computed tomography-guided transthoracic biopsy for pleural and peripheral lung lesions: a systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

An accurate diagnosis of peripheral lung and pleural lesions using image-guided transthoracic biopsy procedure becomes a good diagnostic performance protocol.

PURPOSE

To examine the difference between ultrasonography (USG)-guided versus computed tomography (CT)-guided transthoracic biopsy for pleural and peripheral lung lesions by pooling data from published studies.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

PubMed, CENTRAL, Scopus, Web of Science, and Embase were searched for comparative studies up to 20 February 2023 irrespective of the language of publication. The outcomes were adequacy of the sample and complications (pneumothorax and hemothorax).

RESULTS

Two randomized controlled trials (RCTs) and eight non-RCTs were eligible. The total sample size was 1618. Meta-analysis showed that there was no difference in the adequacy of the sample obtained by USG- or CT-guided biopsies; however, an analysis of only non-RCTs indicated better adequacy with USG. On pooled analysis of any pneumothorax, there was a lower risk associated with USG-guided biopsies, but the risk of pneumothorax requiring interventional treatment was not different in the two groups. Similarly, the pooled analysis also demonstrated a reduced risk of hemothorax with USG-guided biopsies.

CONCLUSION

While there seems to be no difference in the adequacy of the sample obtained with either imaging modality, retrospective data show that USG guidance offers better diagnostic yield compared to CT guidance for peripheral lung and pleural biopsies. The risk of pneumothorax and hemothorax is also significantly lower with USG-guided biopsies. Results should be interpreted with caution owing to selection bias among studies. There is a need for large-scale RCTs to enhance current evidence.

CT-Guided vs. Navigational Bronchoscopic Biopsies for Solitary Pulmonary Nodules: A Single-Institution Retrospective Comparison

OBJECTIVE

Lung cancer is the second most common cause of death by cancer. Multiple modalities can be used to obtain a tissue sample from a pulmonary nodule. We aimed to compare the yield and adverse events related to transthoracic needle aspiration (TTNA) and Electromagnetic Navigation Biopsy (ENB) at our institution.

METHODS

This was a single-center retrospective study in which all patients referred for evaluation of a pulmonary lesion over 5 years (1 January 2013 to 31 December 2018) were identified. Our primary outcome was to compare the accuracy of TTNA to that of ENB in establishing the diagnosis of pulmonary lesions. Secondary outcomes included the evaluation of the adverse events and the sensitivity, specificity, positive, and negative predictive value of each modality.

RESULTS

A total of 1006 patients were analyzed. The mean age of patients in the TTNA and the ENB group was 67.2 ± 11.2 years and 68.3 ± 9.2 years respectively. Local anesthesia was predominantly used for TTNA and moderate sedation was more commonly used in the ENB group. We found ENB to have an accuracy of 57.1%, with a sensitivity of 40.0%, a specificity of 100.0%, a positive predictive value of 100.0%, and a negative predictive value of 40.0%. As for the TTNA, the accuracy was 75.9%, with a sensitivity of 77.5%, a specificity of 61.5%, a positive predictive value of 95.0%, and a negative predictive value of 22.5%. The rate of clinically significant complications was higher in the TTNA group (8.2%) as compared to the ENB group (4.7%) with a p-value < 0.001.

CONCLUSION

TTNA was superior to ENB-guided biopsy for the diagnostic evaluation of lung nodules. However, the complication rate was much higher in the TTNA group as compared to the ENB group.

Accuracy of Preliminary Pathology for Robotic Bronchoscopic Biopsy

BACKGROUND

Diagnosis and treatment of peripheral pulmonary lesions (PPLs) currently require at least 2 procedures. An all-in-1 approach would require diagnosing malignancy with preliminary cytology results. This study investigated the concordance between preliminary cytology and final pathology results in biopsies of PPLs obtained by shape-sensing robotic-assisted bronchoscopy (ssRAB).

METHODS

This study was a retrospective, consecutive, single-arm, single-center study of 110 ssRABs for PPLs. Concordance was defined as agreement between preliminary cytology and final pathology results. Accuracy, sensitivity, specificity, positive and negative predictive values, and safety outcomes were examined.

RESULTS

The concordance was 89% for needle biopsies, 85% for forceps biopsies, and 92% overall, with substantial agreement. There was no significant association of concordance with patients' demographics or lesion characteristics. Preliminary cytology resulted in a malignant diagnosis in 70%, a nonmalignant diagnosis in 4%, and a nondiagnostic result in 26%, with accuracy of 86% and sensitivity of 84%. The total complication rate was 3.6%, with a pneumothorax rate of 1.8%.

CONCLUSIONS

This study compared the concordance of preliminary pathology results with final pathology results for ssRAB biopsies in PPLs. The results showed that preliminary samples have a high concordance with final pathology results and may enable management of PPLs with a single anesthetic procedure including biopsy, staging, and treatment.

Predictive factors for improved diagnostic accuracy with the use of radial-probe EBUS

OBJECTIVE

To assess predictive factors for improved diagnostic accuracy with the use of radial-probe EBUS (RP-EBUS).

METHODS

This was a retrospective review of consecutive patients undergoing RP-EBUS between February of 2012 and January of 2020. Parameters including the presence of a bronchus sign on CT scans, the position of the radial EBUS probe, lesion size, lesion location, and lesion type were analyzed in relation to two defined outcomes (final diagnosis or no diagnosis). Univariate analysis was used in order to explore the individual effects of each parameter on diagnostic accuracy. Multivariate logistic regression was performed to identify significant predictors of diagnostic accuracy.

RESULTS

RP-EBUS was used for diagnostic purposes in 101 patients. The lesion was < 3 cm in size in 59 patients (58.4%) and predominantly solid in 60.3%. There was a positive correlation between radial EBUS probe position and diagnostic accuracy (p = 0.036), with 80.9% of the patients showing a bronchus sign on CT scans. Furthermore, 89% of the patients showed a bronchus sign on CT scans and a correlation with diagnostic accuracy (p = 0.030), with 65.8% of the lesions being located in the left/right upper lobe (p = 0.046). When the radial EBUS probe was within the target lesion, the diagnostic yield was = 80.8%. When the probe was adjacent to the lesion, the diagnostic yield was = 19.2%. A bronchus sign on CT scans was the only parameter that independently influenced diagnostic accuracy (adjusted OR, 3.20; 95% CI, 1.081-9.770; p = 0.036).

CONCLUSIONS

A bronchus sign on CT scans is a powerful predictor of successful diagnosis by RP-EBUS.

Endobronchial ultrasound: a pictorial essay

BACKGROUND AND AIM

endobronchial ultrasound has gained widespread popularity in the last decade, becoming the primary technique for minimally invasive evaluation of the mediastinum and staging of lung cancer. Several tertiary and quaternary care institutes use this method, performed by trained and accredited specialists. Its main indications are (I) diagnosis and staging of lung cancer, (II) mediastinal lymphadenopathy diagnosis (III) sampling peripheral pulmonary lesions.

CONCLUSIONS

this manuscript aims to describe the operational potential of both convex endobronchial ultrasound probe and radial endobronchial ultrasound probe technology, focusing on lung cancer. This narrative review is complemented with by the description of peculiar clinical cases in which endobronchial ultrasound played a pivotal role in reaching the diagnosis.

Inheritance and innovation of the diagnosis of peripheral pulmonary lesions

As the leading cause of cancer-related deaths worldwide, early detection and diagnosis are crucial to reduce the mortality of lung cancer. To date, the diagnosis of the peripheral pulmonary lesions (PPLs) remains a major unmet clinical need. The urgency of diagnosing PPLs has driven a series of development of the advanced bronchoscopy-guided techniques in the past decades, such as radial probe-endobronchial ultrasonography (RP-EBUS), virtual bronchoscopy navigation (VBN), electromagnetic navigation bronchoscopy (ENB), bronchoscopic transparenchymal nodule access (BTPNA), and robotic-assisted bronchoscopy. However, these techniques also have their own limitations. In this review, we would like to introduce the development of diagnostic techniques for PPLs, with a special focus on biopsy approaches and advanced guided bronchoscopy techniques by discussing their advantages, limitations, and future prospects.

Endoscopic Technologies for Peripheral Pulmonary Lesions: From Diagnosis to Therapy

Peripheral pulmonary lesions (PPLs) are frequent incidental findings in subjects when performing chest radiographs or chest computed tomography (CT) scans. When a PPL is identified, it is necessary to proceed with a risk stratification based on the patient profile and the characteristics found on chest CT. In order to proceed with a diagnostic procedure, the first-line examination is often a bronchoscopy with tissue sampling. Many guidance technologies have recently been developed to facilitate PPLs sampling. Through bronchoscopy, it is currently possible to ascertain the PPL's benign or malignant nature, delaying the therapy's second phase with radical, supportive, or palliative intent. In this review, we describe all the new tools available: from the innovation of bronchoscopic instrumentation (e.g., ultrathin bronchoscopy and robotic bronchoscopy) to the advances in navigation technology (e.g., radial-probe endobronchial ultrasound, virtual navigation, electromagnetic navigation, shape-sensing navigation, cone-beam computed tomography). In addition, we summarize all the PPLs ablation techniques currently under experimentation. Interventional pulmonology may be a discipline aiming at adopting increasingly innovative and disruptive technologies.

Diagnostic Yield of Transbronchial Cryobiopsy Guided by Radial Endobronchial Ultrasound and Fluoroscopy in the Radiologically Suspected Lung Cancer: A Single Institution Prospective Study

Transbronchial cryobiopsy (TBCB) is being studied in the diagnosis of peripheral lung lesions; however, there are only a few clinical studies around the world. The aim of our study was to evaluate the diagnostic values and safety of transbronchial cryobiopsy for radiologically suspected peripheral lung cancer. The prospective clinical study was executed from September 2019 to September 2021 at a tertiary clinical centre in Lithuania. A total of 48 patients out of 102 underwent combined procedures of transbronchial forceps biopsy (TBFB) and TBCB. Diagnostic values and safety outcomes of TBFB and TBCB were analysed. The sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value (PPV), negative predictive value (NPV) and accuracy were 72.9%, 100%, 100%, 7.7%, and 88.0% for TBFB, 85.1%, 100%, 100%, 12.5%, and 93% for TBCB, as well as 91.5%, 100%, 100%, 20.0% and 96.7% for the combined procedures, respectively, with a significantly higher accuracy for cryobiopsies compared to forceps biopsies (p < 0.05). The diagnostic values for transbronchial cryobiopsies were similar, irrespective of the radial mini probe endobronchial ultrasound (RP-EBUS) position, lesion size or bronchus sign, however, the sensitivity of the combined procedures in cases with RP-EBUS adjacent to the target was significantly higher compared to TBFB (86.2% vs. 64.3%, p = 0.016). Samples of cryobiopsies were significantly larger than forceps biopsies (34.62 mm2 vs. 4.4 mm2, p = 0.001). The cumulative diagnostic yield of transbronchial cryobiopsy was 80.0% after the second biopsy and reached a plateau of 84.1% after four biopsies. No severe bleeding, pneumothorax, respiratory failure or death was registered in our study. TBCB is a potentially safe procedure, which increases diagnostic values in diagnosing peripheral lung lesions compared to TBFB.

Diagnostic usefulness of bronchoscopy for peripheral pulmonary lesions in patients with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis

Background

As lung cancers arising in a background of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) are known to show high malignancy grades, early pathologic diagnosis of peripheral pulmonary lesions (PPLs) is important. Meanwhile, the risk of complications associated with diagnostic procedures is high, which prompted us to investigate the role of bronchoscopy, a relatively safe diagnostic procedure. Therefore, we conducted this study to evaluate the usefulness of bronchoscopy for the diagnosis of PPLs in patients with IPF.

Methods

Data of consecutive patients with IPF who underwent bronchoscopy under radial endobronchial ultrasound (R-EBUS) guidance for PPLs at our institution between April 2014 and March 2019 were retrospectively reviewed. IPF was defined as usual interstitial pneumonia (UIP) or probable UIP, in accordance with the classification in the latest global guidelines. The diagnostic outcomes and the factors independently related to the diagnostic yield were analyzed.

Results

A total of 92 patients were included in the analysis. The median (range) size of the target PPLs was 27.1 (11.4-75.3) mm, and the diagnostic yield was 82.6%. Multivariable analysis identified a larger size [P=0.017; odds ratio (OR), 5.33; 95% confidence interval (CI), 1.29-22.01], positive bronchus sign (P=0.035; OR, 4.99; 95% CI, 1.12-22.18), and not involved with UIP/probable UIP pattern (P=0.023; OR and 95% CI, unmeasurable) as being associated with a significantly higher diagnostic yield. Meanwhile, none of the patients developed acute exacerbation of IPF or pneumothorax following the diagnostic bronchoscopy.

Conclusions

Bronchoscopy using R-EBUS was safe and showed an acceptable diagnostic yield for PPLs, even in patients with IPF.

Electromagnetic navigation bronchoscopy localization of lung nodules for thoracoscopic resection

Background

Thoracoscopic localization of small peripheral pulmonary nodules is a concern. Failure can lead to larger parenchymal resection or conversion to thoracotomy. This study evaluates our experience in preoperative electromagnetic navigation bronchoscopy-guided localization of small peripheral lung lesions.

Methods

From January 2017 to March 2020 clinical, radiographic, surgical, and pathological data of patients who underwent electromagnetic navigation bronchoscopy (ENB)-guided methylene blue pleural marking of highly suspected pulmonary lesions before a full thoracoscopic resection were evaluated. Localization was performed for solid or mixed subpleural nodules measuring <10 mm, solid nodules measuring <20 mm located at more than 1 cm from the pleura and any pure ground glass opacity. Successful localization was defined as successful identification and thoracoscopic resection of target lesions.

Results

Forty-eight patients were included: 30 solid nodules (63%), 12 pure GGO (25%) and 6 mixed (13%). The median largest diameter at CT-scan was 11 mm (IQR, 9-14 mm) while the median distance from the pleural surface was 12 mm (IQR, 6-16 mm). The median ENB length was 25 min (19-33 min). Localization procedure was successful in 45 cases (94%). No procedural-related complications were reported.

Conclusions

ENB is a safe and accurate preoperative procedure to localize small lung peripheral lesions. The high successful rate, the absence of related complications, the possibility of performing the procedure in the same operating room with a single general anesthesia, make ENB-guided dye marking an advantageous tool for thoracoscopic pulmonary resection.

Diagnostic yield and safety of biopsy guided by electromagnetic navigation bronchoscopy for high-risk pulmonary nodules

Background

Electromagnetic navigation bronchoscopy (ENB) is a useful method to obtain tissue for peripheral lung nodules. We aimed to understand the diagnostic yield and safety profile in high‐risk pulmonary nodules that cannot be accessed by percutaneous transthoracic needle biopsy.

Methods

In this single‐center retrospective study, we reviewed patients who underwent ENB for high‐risk pulmonary nodules. All procedures were performed under moderate sedation using intravenous midazolam and fentanyl.

Results

A total of 100 pulmonary nodules in 90 patients were subjected to ENB between October 2018 and May 2020. The median age of the study population was 66 (59–73). The mean diameter of the lung nodules was 27.9 mm. The diagnostic yield of ENB‐guided biopsy was 53.0%. Although the nodule size (odds ratio: 1.055, p = 0.007) and positive bronchus sign (odds ratio: 2.918, p = 0.020) were associated with the diagnostic yield during univariate analysis, nodule size was the only independent variable on the multivariable analysis. Interestingly, the diagnostic yield showed an upward trend after 60 cases, from 45%–65%. Procedure‐related complications were reported in 16 cases; among these, pneumothorax occurred in three cases, and four cases experienced moderate bleeding. No instance of major bleeding or death was linked to ENB‐guided biopsy.

Conclusion

ENB‐guided biopsy for high‐risk pulmonary nodules demonstrated an acceptable diagnostic yield and good safety profile. Moreover, the diagnostic yield was associated with nodule size and procedure experience.

Solitary pulmonary nodule imaging approaches and the role of optical fibre-based technologies

Solitary pulmonary nodules (SPNs) are a clinical challenge, given there is no single clinical sign or radiological feature that definitively identifies a benign from a malignant SPN. The early detection of lung cancer has a huge impact on survival outcome. Consequently, there is great interest in the prompt diagnosis, and treatment of malignant SPNs. Current diagnostic pathways involve endobronchial/transthoracic tissue biopsies or radiological surveillance, which can be associated with suboptimal diagnostic yield, healthcare costs and patient anxiety. Cutting-edge technologies are needed to disrupt and improve, existing care pathways. Optical fibre-based techniques, which can be delivered via the working channel of a bronchoscope or via transthoracic needle, may deliver advanced diagnostic capabilities in patients with SPNs. Optical endomicroscopy, an autofluorescence-based imaging technique, demonstrates abnormal alveolar structure in SPNs in vivo Alternative optical fingerprinting approaches, such as time-resolved fluorescence spectroscopy and fluorescence-lifetime imaging microscopy, have shown promise in discriminating lung cancer from surrounding healthy tissue. Whilst fibre-based Raman spectroscopy has enabled real-time characterisation of SPNs in vivo Fibre-based technologies have the potential to enable in situ characterisation and real-time microscopic imaging of SPNs, which could aid immediate treatment decisions in patients with SPNs. This review discusses advances in current imaging modalities for evaluating SPNs, including computed tomography (CT) and positron emission tomography-CT. It explores the emergence of optical fibre-based technologies, and discusses their potential role in patients with SPNs and suspected lung cancer.

Diagnostic value of ultrathin bronchoscopy in peripheral pulmonary lesions: a narrative review

Flexible bronchoscopes are being continuously improved, and an ultrathin bronchoscope with a working channel that allows the use of a radial-type endobronchial ultrasound (EBUS) probe is now available. The ultrathin bronchoscope has good maneuverability for passing through the small bronchi and good accessibility to peripheral lung lesions. This utility is particularly enhanced when it is used with other imaging devices, such as EBUS and navigation devices. Multimodality bronchoscopy using an ultrathin bronchoscope leads to enhanced diagnostic yield.

Time Difference of Arrival on Contrast-Enhanced Ultrasound in Distinguishing Benign Inflammation From Malignant Peripheral Pulmonary Lesions

Introduction

Worldwide, the incidence and mortality of lung cancer are at the highest levels, and the most lesions are located in the lung periphery. Despite extensive screening and diagnosis, the pathologic types of peripheral pulmonary lesions (PPLs) are difficult to diagnose by noninvasive examination. This study aimed to identify a novel index—time difference of arrival (TDOA)—to discriminate between benign inflammation and malignant PPLs.

Methods

Using contrast-enhanced ultrasound (CEUS), we retrospectively analyzed 96 patients with PPLs who had undergone biopsy to confirm the pathologic types. All data were collected from Dazhou Central Hospital between December 2012 and July 2019. The parameters of CEUS were analyzed by two assistant chief physicians of ultrasound diagnosis. Area under the receiver operating characteristic curve analysis, sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value, and negative predictive value were calculated to assess the diagnostic ability of different indices.

Results

We found that the TDOA significantly distinguished benign inflammation from malignant lesions. The TDOA was markedly increased in patients with malignant lesions than benign inflammation lesions (P < 0.001). Compared with conventional time-intensity curve (TIC) indices, TDOA showed high diagnostic accuracy (area under the curve = 0.894). Moreover, conventional diagnostic indices did not affect the diagnostic performance of TDOA by adjusting the receiver operating characteristic curve.

Conclusion

TDOA is feasible for the diagnosis of benign inflammation and malignant PPLs.

Diagnostic role of liquid-based cytology of bronchial lavage fluid in addition to bronchial brushing specimens in lung cancer

BACKGROUND

Liquid-based cytology (LBC) tests, including the liquid-based thin layer method, have demonstrated the highest potential for reducing false-negatives and improving sample quality.

METHOD

This study aimed to evaluate the diagnostic role of LBC of bronchial brushing specimens in lung cancer. A total of 249 patients were analyzed in our study, involving 155 patients with combined bronchial brushing and bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) and 94 patients with BAL alone.

RESULTS

The sensitivity in the combined bronchial brushing and BAL group was 61.4% in the diagnosis of lung cancer, which is much higher than with BAL alone. Rates of positive predictive values and negative predictive values in the combined group compared with the BALF alone group were 98.6% vs 100% and 47.6% vs 37.4%, respectively. Sensitivity in the BALF alone group was 12.5% in bronchoscopically invisible pulmonary lesions and as high as 52.1% in the combined group.

CONCLUSION

The results from our study demonstrated that LBC of brushing samples could be used as an important complement of bronchoscopy and could have the potential to be widely applied.

The utility of transbronchial rebiopsy for peripheral pulmonary lesions in patients with advanced non-squamous non-small cell lung cancer

Background

Patients treated for non-squamous (non-Sq) non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) often require repeat biopsies to determine the optimal subsequent treatment. However, the differences between rebiopsy and initial biopsy in terms of their diagnostic yields and their ability to test the molecular profiles using bronchoscopy with radial endobronchial ultrasound guidance in patients with advanced NSCLC remain unclear. Hence, we aimed to compare the diagnostic yields and ability for molecular analyses of rebiopsies with those of initial biopsies.

Methods

We investigated 301 patients with advanced non-Sq NSCLC who underwent radial endobronchial ultrasound-guided transbronchial biopsy (TBB) for peripheral pulmonary lesions (PPLs) between August 2014 and July 2017. Patients were divided into the rebiopsy and initial biopsy groups: the latter referred to the biopsy that determined the definitive diagnosis. The diagnostic yields and ability for molecular analyses were compared between the two groups, and the factors affecting the TBB diagnostic yield were identified using univariate and multivariate analyses.

Results

The diagnostic yields of the rebiopsy and initial biopsy groups were comparable (86.8 and 90.8%, respectively; p = 0.287). Furthermore, 93.0 and 94.0% of the patients in the rebiopsy and initial biopsy groups, respectively, had adequate specimens for gene profiling and mutational analysis (p = 0.765). The factors that increased the diagnostic yield were a positive bronchus sign (p < 0.001) and tumour location within the internal two-thirds of the lungs (p = 0.026).

Conclusions

The PPL diagnostic yield of the rebiopsy group was as high as that of the initial biopsy group. Hence, TBB for PPLs is feasible for patients requiring rebiopsy as well as for those with initial diagnoses. Adequate, high-quality biopsy specimens can be obtained by transbronchial rebiopsy for molecular testing.

Electromagnetic navigation bronchoscopy as an adjunct diagnostic tool in the Danish lung cancer diagnostic pathway: an initial retrospective single centre series

Background

The performance of electromagnetic navigation bronchoscopy (ENB) is reported with substantial variation, which may question its clinical usefulness. However, ENB may hold its true value when used as an additional minimal invasive diagnostic option before potential surgery in selected diagnostically challenging patients where traditional diagnostic methods have failed. We evaluated the safety and performance of ENB when used as an adjunct diagnostic tool in the Danish lung cancer diagnostic pathway (DLCDP) and its ability to reduce surgical diagnostic procedures.

Methods

A retrospective study was performed on eighty-two consecutive patients at Odense University Hospital from June 2016 to March 2018 with diagnostically challenging pulmonary lesions referred for ENB as an adjunct diagnostic procedure under the DLCDP. Patients with benign or inconclusive ENB pathology were either referred for further biopsies, surgery or repeated computer tomography (CT) scans for surveillance purposes.

Results

Eighty-one ENB procedures were performed in 80 patients. In 87.7% of the cases previous diagnostic methods had been unsuccessful. The mean target diameter was 1.55 cm and the average follow-up duration was 11 months. The diagnostic accuracy was 75%, while the diagnostic yield/sensitivity, negative predictive value and negative likelihood ratio was 51%, 67% and 0.49, respectively. No pneumothoraces and only one intrapulmonary haemorrhage was recorded, which was managed conservatively. The learning curve revealed an increase in diagnostic accuracy from 67.5% to 82.9% when comparing the first 40 ENB procedures with the last 41 procedures, however, this was not statistically significant (p-value: 0.11).

Conclusions

ENB was found to be a safe procedure with an acceptable diagnostic accuracy and yield in highly selected diagnostically challenging patients. The introduction of ENB carried a notable learning curve but proved to be a valuable adjunct diagnostic option in the DLCDP, which may help to reduce the number of potentially unnecessary or harmful surgical procedures in frail patients.

An update on the role of bronchoscopy in the diagnosis of pulmonary disease

Bronchoscopy has evolved over the past few decades and has been used by respiratory physicians to diagnose various airway and lung diseases. With the popularization of medical check-ups and growing interest in health, early diagnosis of lung diseases is essential. With the development of endobronchial ultrasound, ultrathin bronchoscopy, and electromagnetic navigational bronchoscopy, bronchoscopy has been able to widen its scope in diagnosing pulmonary diseases. In this review, we have described the brief history, role, and complications of bronchoscopy used in diagnosing pulmonary lesions, from simple flexible bronchoscopy to bronchoscopy combined with several up-to-date technologies.

The value of navigation bronchoscopy in the diagnosis of peripheral pulmonary lesions: A meta-analysis

Background

To compare the diagnostic yield of peripheral pulmonary lesions (PPLs) with and without navigation system.

Methods

Studies dating from January 1990 to October 2019 were collected from databases. Diagnostic yield of navigation bronchoscopy and non‐navigation bronchoscopy was extracted from comparative studies. Subgroup analysis was adopted to test diagnostic yield variation by lesion size, lobe location of the lesion, distance from the hilum, bronchus sign and nature of the lesion.

Results

In total, 2131 patients from 10 studies were enrolled into the study. Diagnostic yield of navigation bronchoscopy was statistically higher than non‐navigation bronchoscopy for PPLs (odds ratio [OR] 1.69, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.32, 2.18, P < 0.001), particularly for PPLs in the peripheral third lung (OR 2.26, 95% CI 1.48, 3.44, P < 0.001) and for bronchus sign positive PPLs (OR 2.26, 95% CI 1.21, 4.26, P = 0.011). Navigation bronchoscopy had better performance than non‐navigation bronchoscopy when PPLs were ≤ 20 mm (OR 2.09, 95% CI 1.44, 3.03, P < 0.001). It also elevated diagnostic yield of malignant PPLs (OR 1.67, 95% CI 1.26, 2.22, P < 0.001) and PPLs in the bilateral upper lobes (OR 1.50, 95% CI 1.09, 2.08, P = 0.014).

Conclusions

Navigation bronchoscopy enhanced diagnostic yield when compared to non‐navigation bronchoscopy, particularly for PPLs in the peripheral third lung, PPLs being bronchus sign positive, PPLs ≤ 20 mm, malignant PPLs and PPLs in the bilateral upper lobes.

Key points

The current study provided systematic evaluation on the diagnostic value of navigation bronchoscopy by comparing it with non‐navigation bronchoscopy, and exploring the factors affecting the diagnostic yield.

Factors leading to failure to diagnose pulmonary malignant tumors using endobronchial ultrasound with guide sheath within the target lesion

Background

The diagnostic yield of peripheral pulmonary lesions has significantly increased with the use of radial endobronchial ultrasound with guide sheath within the lesion. Here, we retrospectively evaluated factors leading to misdiagnosis of pulmonary malignant tumors using endobronchial ultrasound with the guide sheath within the lesion.

Methods

We assessed the final histopathological diagnosis of biopsy samples taken from 130 patients with lung malignant tumors that underwent endobronchial ultrasound with guide sheath within the lesion.

Results

Among 130 patients, 8 (6%) showed no definite malignant findings in biopsy samples but the presence of malignant cells (primary lung cancer 7, diffuse large B cell lymphoma 1) was subsequently confirmed by histopathological study of specimens taken by computed tomography-guided needle biopsy or surgery. Of the eight cases with diagnostic failure, the size of the biopsy sample was insufficient in five due to technical difficulties during the diagnostic procedure, and the diagnosis of malignant tumor was difficult in five cases because of extensive scarring tissue or central necrosis.

Conclusions

The results of this study showed that technical difficulties and/or pathological heterogeneity of the tumor might lead to failure to diagnose lung malignant tumor in cases using endobronchial ultrasound with guide sheath within the lesion.

Use of an Ultrathin vs Thin Bronchoscope for Peripheral Pulmonary Lesions: A Randomized Trial

BACKGROUND

When evaluating peripheral pulmonary lesions, a 3.0-mm ultrathin bronchoscope (UTB) with a 1.7-mm working channel is advantageous regarding good access to the peripheral airway, whereas a 4.0-mm thin bronchoscope provides a larger 2.0-mm working channel, which allows the use of various instruments including a guide sheath (GS), larger forceps, and an aspiration needle. This study compared multimodal bronchoscopy using a UTB and a thin bronchoscope with multiple sampling methods for the diagnosis of peripheral pulmonary lesions.

METHODS

Patients with peripheral pulmonary lesions ≤ 30 mm in diameter were recruited and randomized to undergo endobronchial ultrasonography, virtual bronchoscopy, and fluoroscopy-guided bronchoscopy using a 3.0-mm UTB (UTB group) or a 4.0-mm thin bronchoscope (thin bronchoscope group). In the thin bronchoscope group, the use of small forceps with a GS or standard forceps without the GS was permitted. In addition, needle aspiration was performed for lesions into which an ultrasound probe could not be inserted.

RESULTS

A total of 360 patients were enrolled, and 356 were included in the analyses (median largest lesional diameter, 19 mm). The overall diagnostic yield was significantly higher in the UTB group than in the thin bronchoscope group (70.1% vs 58.7%, respectively; P = .027). The procedure duration was significantly shorter in the UTB group (median, 24.8 vs 26.8 min, respectively; P = .008). The complication rates were 2.8% and 4.5%, respectively (P = .574).

CONCLUSIONS

Multimodal bronchoscopy using a UTB afforded a higher diagnostic yield than that using a thin bronchoscope in the diagnosis of small peripheral pulmonary lesions.

TRIAL REGISTRY

UMIN Clinical Trials Registry; No.: UMIN000010133; URL: https://www.umin.ac.jp/ctr/.

Initial Experience in CT-Guided Percutaneous Transthoracic Needle Biopsy of Lung Lesions Performed by a Pulmonologist

In the diagnosis of lung lesions, computed tomography (CT)-guided percutaneous transthoracic needle biopsy (PTNB) has a high diagnostic yield and a low complication rate. The procedure is usually performed by interventional radiologists, but the diagnostic yield and safety of CT-guided PTNB when performed by pulmonologists have not been evaluated. A retrospective study of 239 patients who underwent CT-guided PTNB at Yeungnam University Hospital between March 2017 and April 2018 was conducted. A pulmonologist performed the procedure using a co-axial technique with a 20-gauge needle. Then diagnostic yield and safety were assessed. The overall sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value, and negative predictive value for the diagnosis of malignancy were 96.1% (171/178), 100% (46/46), 100% (171/171), and 86.8% (46/53), respectively. The diagnostic accuracy was 96.9% (217/224) and the overall complication rate was 33.1% (82/248). Pneumothorax, hemoptysis, and hemothorax occurred in 27.0% (67/248), 5.2% (13/248), and 0.8% (2/248) of the patients, respectively. Univariate analyses revealed that pneumothorax requiring chest tube insertion was a significant risk factor (odds ratio, 25.0; p < 0.001) for diagnostic failure. CT-guided PTNB is a safe procedure with a high diagnostic accuracy, even when performed by an inexperienced pulmonologist. The results were similar to those achieved by interventional radiologists as reported in previously published studies.

Diagnosis and first-line treatment of non-small cell lung cancer in the era of novel immunotherapy: recommendations for clinical practice

INTRODUCTION

In the era of personalized cancer therapy, the sampling of adequate tumor tissue for histologic diagnosis and genomic profiling is crucial, not only at the initial diagnosis but also in the event of resistant and recurrent disease when sequential biopsies may be required to evaluate somatic mutations and histologic changes. Areas covered: The identification of genetic driver alterations led to the selection of patients who are most likely to benefit from epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) and anaplastic lymphoma kinase (ALK) and rat osteosarcoma (ROS-1) tyrosine kinase inhibitors; on the other hand, in the absence of oncogenic alterations, platinum-based doublet chemotherapy regimens were the cornerstone of treatment. However, the advent of immunotherapy has widely changed the first-line treatment. Expert commentary: An Italian Experts Panel Meeting was held to discuss on recommendations for diagnosis (optimization of the cyto/histologic tumor sample issue and management of tissue to molecular evaluation) and immunotherapy as first-line treatment of patients with advanced non-small-cell lung cancer.

A retrospective study comparing the ultrathin versus conventional bronchoscope for performing radial endobronchial ultrasound in the evaluation of peripheral pulmonary lesions

Background:

Few studies have reported on the utility of ultrathin bronchoscopes (UTBs) for performing radial probe endobronchial ultrasound (EBUS). Herein, we describe our experience with UTB and conventional bronchoscope (CB) for performing radial EBUS.

Materials and Methods:

This was a retrospective study comparing the diagnostic yield of a prototype UTB (external diameter 3 mm, working channel diameter 1.7 mm) versus CBs (external diameter ≥4.9 mm) in performing radial EBUS for the evaluation of peripheral pulmonary lesions (PPLs). Fluoroscopic guidance was not available.

Results:

A total of 121 subjects (34, UTB; 87, CB; 69.4% males) with a mean (standard deviation [SD]) age of 55.2 (14.8) years underwent radial EBUS. The mean (SD) size of PPLs on computed tomography of the thorax was 22.2 (13.7) mm. The lesions were significantly smaller in the UTB group (16.4 vs 24.7 mm, P = 0.006). Eight lesions could be visualized within the lumen of the peripheral smaller bronchi with the UTB. The overall yield of radial EBUS was 52.9% and was similar in the two groups (UTB vs. CB, 55.9% vs. 51.7%; P = 0.7). The procedure time was significantly shorter in the UTB group. On multivariate logistic regression, the yield was similar in the two groups after adjusting for the size and location of the lesion and position of the radial probe in relation to the lesion.

Conclusion:

Despite smaller lesions, radial EBUS performed with the UTB was found to have similar efficacy to that performed with the CB. More lesions could be visualized endobronchially using the UTB making it an attractive alternative for performing radial EBUS.

Endoscopic Ultrasound with Bronchoscope-Guided Fine Needle Aspiration for the Diagnosis of Paraesophageally Located Lung Lesions

BACKGROUND

Diagnosing centrally located lung tumors without endobronchial abnormalities and not located near the major airways is a diagnostic challenge. Tumors near or adjacent to the esophagus can be aspirated and detected with esophageal ultrasound (EUS) using gastrointestinal endoscopes.

OBJECTIVE

To assess the feasibility and diagnostic yield of endoscopic ultrasound with bronchoscope-guided fine needle aspiration (EUS-B-FNA) in paraesophageally located lung tumors and its added value to bronchoscopy and endobronchial ultrasound (EBUS).

METHODS

Retrospective, multicenter international study (from January 1, 2015 until January 1, 2018) of patients with suspected lung cancer, undergoing bronchoscopy, EBUS, and endoscopic ultrasound bronchoscopy (EUS-B) in one session by a single operator (pulmonologist), in whom the primary lung tumor was detected and aspirated by EUS-B. In the absence of malignancy following endoscopy, transthoracic ultrasound needle aspiration, clinical and radiological follow-up of at least 6 months was performed. The yield and sensitivity of EUS-B-FNA and its added value to bronchoscopy and EBUS was assessed.

RESULTS

58 patients were identified with the following diagnosis: non-small-cell lung cancer (n = 43), small-cell lung cancer (n = 6), mesothelioma (n = 2), metastasis (n = 1), nonmalignant (n = 6). The yield and sensitivity of EUS-B-FNA for detecting lung cancer was 90%. In 26 patients (45%), the intrapulmonary tumor was exclusively detected by EUS-B. Adding EUS-B to conventional bronchoscopy and EBUS increased the diagnostic yield for diagnosing lung cancer in para-esophageally located lung tumors from 51 to 91%. No EUS-B-related complications were observed.

CONCLUSION

EUS-B-FNA is a feasible and safe technique for diagnosing centrally located intrapulmonary tumors that are located near or adjacent to the esophagus. EUS-B should be considered in the same endoscopy session following nondiagnostic bronchoscopy and EBUS.

Virtual bronchoscopic navigation as an aid to CT-guided transbronchial biopsy improves the diagnostic yield for small peripheral pulmonary lesions

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE

Virtual bronchoscopic navigation (VBN) entails the provision of a virtual display of the bronchial routes that lead to small peripheral pulmonary lesions (PPL). It has been predicted that a combination of computed tomography (CT)-guided transbronchial biopsy (CT-TBB) with VBN might improve the diagnostic yield for small PPL. This study sought to investigate that prediction.

METHODS

A total of 100 patients with small PPL (<20 mm) were enrolled for CT-TBB and randomly allocated to either a VBN+ or VBN- group (50 subjects per group). Group results were then compared in terms of diagnostic yield, whole procedure time, times at which the first CT scan and biopsy were taken and the number of lung biopsy specimens retrieved.

RESULTS

The diagnostic yield for small PPL was significantly higher in the VBN+ group versus VBN- group (84% vs 58%, respectively (P = 0.013)), with no significant difference in (whole) examination time between groups (VBN+: 32:53 (32 min and 53 s) ± 12:01 vs VBN-: 33:06 ± 10:08 (P = NS)). However, the time periods between commencing the examination and either the first CT scan or first biopsy were significantly shorter for the VBN+ group, while the net biopsy time tended to be longer for this group with a significantly higher number of specimens collected (VBN+: 3.54 ± 1.07 specimens vs VBN-: 2.98 ± 1.06 specimens (P = 0.01)).

CONCLUSION

Combining VBN with CT-TBB significantly improved the diagnostic yield for small PPL.

Anesthesia for interventional pulmonology procedures: a review of advanced diagnostic and therapeutic bronchoscopy

PURPOSE

Interventional pulmonology is a growing subspecialty of pulmonary medicine with flexible and rigid bronchoscopies increasingly used by interventional pulmonologists for advanced diagnostic and therapeutic purposes. This review discusses different technical aspects of anesthesia for interventional pulmonary procedures with an emphasis placed on pharmacologic combinations, airway management, ventilation techniques, and common complications.

SOURCE

Relevant medical literature was identified by searching the PubMed and Google Scholar databases for publications on different anesthesia topics applicable to interventional pulmonary procedures. Cited literature included case reports, original research articles, review articles, meta-analyses, guidelines, and official society statements.

PRINCIPAL FINDINGS

Interventional pulmonology is a rapidly growing area of medicine. Anesthesiologists need to be familiar with different considerations required for every procedure, particularly as airway access is a shared responsibility with pulmonologists. Depending on the individual case characteristics, a different selection of airway method, ventilation mode, and pharmacologic combination may be required. Most commonly, airways are managed with supraglottic devices or endotracheal tubes. Nevertheless, patients with central airway obstruction or tracheal stenosis may require rigid bronchoscopy and jet ventilation. Although anesthetic approaches may vary depending on factors such as the length, complexity, and acuity of the procedure, the majority of patients are anesthetized using a total intravenous anesthetic technique.

CONCLUSIONS

It is fundamental for the anesthesia provider to be updated on interventional pulmonology procedures in this rapidly growing area of medicine.

Any Place for Immunohistochemistry within the Predictive Biomarkers of Treatment in Lung Cancer Patients?

The identification of certain genomic alterations (EGFR, ALK, ROS1, BRAF) or immunological markers (PD-L1) in tissues or cells has led to targeted treatment for patients presenting with late stage or metastatic lung cancer. These biomarkers can be detected by immunohistochemistry (IHC) and/or by molecular biology (MB) techniques. These approaches are often complementary but depending on, the quantity and quality of the biological material, the urgency to get the results, the access to technological platforms, the financial resources and the expertise of the team, the choice of the approach can be questioned. The possibility of detecting simultaneously several molecular targets, and of analyzing the degree of tumor mutation burden and of the micro-satellite instability, as well as the recent requirement to quantify the expression of PD-L1 in tumor cells, has led to case by case development of algorithms and international recommendations, which depend on the quality and quantity of biological samples. This review will highlight the different predictive biomarkers detected by IHC for treatment of lung cancer as well as the present advantages and limitations of this approach. A number of perspectives will be considered.