Trends in fatalities from distracted driving in the United States, 1999 to 2008

Riding with distraction: Exploring the intention and behaviour of smartphone use while riding among motorcyclists in Vietnam

The pervasive use of smartphones has significantly contributed to distracted driving, a leading cause of road traffic accidents globally. This study investigates the behavioural intentions and patterns of smartphone use while riding among motorcyclists in Vietnam, integrating the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) with the Stimuli-Organism-Response (SOR) framework to encompass factors such as riding exposure and time pressure. A questionnaire survey was conducted, gathering data from 1,051 young motorcyclists. Using Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modelling (PLS-SEM), the study identifies high levels of smartphone engagement during riding, driven primarily by Perceived Behavioural Control (PBC), which exhibited a stronger influence on behaviour than Attitudes and Social Norms. Notably, time pressure significantly enhanced the intention to use smartphones, suggesting that riding under time constraints could exacerbate the risk of distracted riding incidents. The findings highlight critical implications for road safety interventions and policy formulation, emphasising the need for targeted educational programmes and stricter enforcement measures to mitigate smartphone-induced distractions among motorcyclists at a higher risk of traffic accidents. The study contributes to understanding distracted riding behaviours in motorcycle-dominant regions, providing a foundation for future research and preventive strategies.

Influence of distracted driving of online car-hailing drivers on overall driving performance

The distraction affects driving performance and induces serious safety issues. To better understand distracted driving, this study examines the influence of distracted driving on overall driving performance. This paper analyzes the distraction behavior (mobile phone use, entertainment activities, and passenger interference) under three driving tasks. The statistical results show that viewing or sending messages is common during driving. Smoking, phone calls, and talking to passengers are evident in cruising, ride request and drop-off, respectively. Then, overall driving performance is proposed based on velocity, longitudinal acceleration (longacc) and yaw_rate. It is divided into three categories, high, medium, and low, by k-means algorithms. The average speed increases from low to high performance; however, the longacc and yaw_rate decrease. Finally, the influence of distracted driving on overall driving performance is analyzed using C4.5 algorithm. The result shows that when time is peak, the probability of high performance (HP) is higher than off-peak. The possibility of HP increases with the increase of duration; the number of, talking to passengers, listening to music or radio, eating; the duration of, viewing or sending messages, phone calls; but reduces with the increase of the number of phone calls. These findings provide theoretical support for driving performance evaluation.

Investigating medical student's attitudes about road accident risks: A cross-sectional study

Background and Aims

Given that unsafe human actions are the main cause of accidents, it is essential to comprehend the attitudes of medical students toward the risks of road accidents, particularly given their potential influence as future healthcare professionals. Therefore, this study was carried out to investigate the attitudes of medical students towards road accidents.

Methods

This cross-sectional study was conducted on 300 Zahedan University of Medical Sciences students in 2021 as available sampling. The required information was collected using a researcher-made questionnaire with a content validity ratio of 0.9, a content validity index of 0.9-0.8, and a reliability (α) of 0.79, which was presented online in the university systems. Statistical analysis was done using SPSS 23 software, data description was done as frequency and percentage, and analytical analysis was done with the χ 2 test.

Results

The average age of the participants was 21.7 (4.2) years; 45.7% of the participants were male and 11.3% were married; 79.7% had less than 300 km of driving experience; 76% had less than 3 years since receiving their license; 14% stated that they drive faster than others; 18.3% reported a history of fines; and 28.3% reported an accident history. The most incorrect attitudes of students regarding low-risk using mobile phones (86%), text sending (84.3%), eating and drinking while driving (74.6%), driving after consuming alcohol or drugs (73%), and driving when tired and sleepy (85.4%) were reported.

Conclusion

Based on the results, it is suggested to plan to correct wrong attitudes, especially among young and educated drivers, through education and culture, so that we can move in the direction of reducing accidents.

In-Car Environment Control Using an SSVEP-Based Brain-Computer Interface with Visual Stimuli Presented on Head-Up Display: Performance Comparison with a Button-Press Interface

Controlling the in-car environment, including temperature and ventilation, is necessary for a comfortable driving experience. However, it often distracts the driver's attention, potentially causing critical car accidents. In the present study, we implemented an in-car environment control system utilizing a brain-computer interface (BCI) based on steady-state visual evoked potential (SSVEP). In the experiment, four visual stimuli were displayed on a laboratory-made head-up display (HUD). This allowed the participants to control the in-car environment by simply staring at a target visual stimulus, i.e., without pressing a button or averting their eyes from the front. The driving performances in two realistic driving tests-obstacle avoidance and car-following tests-were then compared between the manual control condition and SSVEP-BCI control condition using a driving simulator. In the obstacle avoidance driving test, where participants needed to stop the car when obstacles suddenly appeared, the participants showed significantly shorter response time (1.42 ± 0.26 s) in the SSVEP-BCI control condition than in the manual control condition (1.79 ± 0.27 s). No-response rate, defined as the ratio of obstacles that the participants did not react to, was also significantly lower in the SSVEP-BCI control condition (4.6 ± 14.7%) than in the manual control condition (20.5 ± 25.2%). In the car-following driving test, where the participants were instructed to follow a preceding car that runs at a sinusoidally changing speed, the participants showed significantly lower speed difference with the preceding car in the SSVEP-BCI control condition (15.65 ± 7.04 km/h) than in the manual control condition (19.54 ± 11.51 km/h). The in-car environment control system using SSVEP-based BCI showed a possibility that might contribute to safer driving by keeping the driver's focus on the front and thereby enhancing the overall driving performance.

A temporal analysis of crash injury severities in multivehicle crashes involving distracted and non-distracted driving on tollways

Distracted driving is a prominent cause of traffic crashes and may increase the severity of collisions. Due to the larger speeds on toll ways, distracted driving crashes are more severe than on other types of roads, making it worthwhile to investigate. This study examined the variation in the influence of factors affecting injury severity in crashes involving distracted and non-distracted driving, as well as the change over time, using crash data from Florida toll ways from the 2017 to 2019. A series of random parameters logit models with heterogeneity in the means and variances were developed to analyze different driver-injury severities (no injury, minor injury, and severe injury) in crashes involving distracted and non-distracted driving. In addition, likelihood ratio tests were conducted to determine whether model parameters differed between different driver behaviors (distracted/non-distracted driving) and among years. Several factors potentially impacting injury severities were studied, including driver, crash, vehicle, roadway, environment, temporal, and others. Significant disparities were observed between the contributing factors of the severity of crashes involving distracted and non-distracted driving. Results showed that considerable differences were also observed in the severity of injuries caused by two types of crashes and distracted driving resulted in more serious crashes than non-distracted driving. Despite model results indicated that factors influencing injury severity altered over time, several factors, such as motorcycle involvement and commercial car involvement, still exhibited relative temporal stability in non-distracted driving crashes over the three years. Temporal instability and non-transferability were also captured by out-of-sample predictions to verify the temporal shifts of contributing variables from year to year. This study is useful for distinguishing the influence mechanisms between the two types of crashes involving distracted and non-distracted driving, and the results can be applied for safety countermeasures development.

Mobile phone use among truck drivers: The application and extension of the theory of planned behavior

Commercial truck drivers are particularly exposed to the risks associated with distracted driving, especially with mobile phone use while driving (MPWD), due to their higher driving exposure (DE) (e.g., high driving frequency, long driving hours and distance). However, despite being identified as one of the major causes in truck crashes, truck drivers' MPWD behavior has received little attention. In the current work, the theory of planned behavior (TPB), extended with DE, was applied to explore the determinants of MPWD among commercial truck drivers in China and examine the correlations between drivers' DE and psychological factors. We conducted an Internet survey and collected 420 valid questionnaires, which measured truck drivers' 5 standard TPB variables, DE and demographics. Structural equation modelling was used to analyze the data from the survey. The results showed strong support for the application of the proposed TPB model in explaining truck drivers' MPWD behavior. Specifically, truck drivers' behavioral intention (BI) had the greatest direct positive effect on MPWD behavior, while perceived behavioral control (PBC) had no direct positive effect. Moreover, PBC, attitude (ATT) and DE were significantly and positively associated with BI, while subjective norm was insignificant. As expected, DE has significant positive effects on truck drivers' psychological factors underlying MPWD behavior, especially on ATT and PBC, indicating that truck drivers with higher DE tend to have more positive attitudes toward MPWD and feel more confident about performing this risky behavior. These results may have notable practical implications in providing theoretical support for management and intervention of commercial truck drivers.

Review of Research on Road Traffic Operation Risk Prevention and Control

Road traffic safety can be ensured by preventing and controlling the potential risks in road traffic operations. The relevant literature was systematically reviewed to identify the research context and status quo in the road traffic operation risk prevention and control field and identify the key study contents needing further research. As research material, the related English and Chinese literature published between 1996 and 2021 (as of 31st December 2021) was obtained through the Web of Science Core Collection and Chinese Science Citation Database. These research materials include 22,403 English and 7876 Chinese papers. Based on the bibliometrics, this study used CiteSpace software to conduct keyword co-occurrence analysis in the field. The results show that the relevant research topics mainly covered the risks of drivers, vehicles, roads, and the traffic environment. In the aspect of driver risks, the studies focused on driving behavior characteristics. In terms of vehicle risks, the related studies were mainly about the vehicle control system, driving assistance system, hazardous material transportation, automated driving technology, safe driving speed, and vehicle collision prediction. For the road risks, the safe driving guarantee of high-risk road sections, driving risks at intersections, and safe road alignment design were the three study hotspots. In terms of traffic environment risks, identifying traffic risk locations and driving safety guarantees under adverse weather conditions were the two main research highlights. Moreover, mathematical modeling was the main method for studying road traffic operation risk. Furthermore, the impact of environmental factors on drivers, the emergency rescue system for road traffic accidents, the connection between automated driving technology and safe driving theory, and the man-machine hybrid traffic flow characteristics are the subjects needing further research.

Factors affecting road safety compliance in a low- and middle-income country: An observational study from Lebanon

Road traffic injury is a major public health problem in Lebanon. This study aims to assess compliance with safety measures including seatbelt and helmet use in adults and children, and the prevalence of distracted driving among road users across Lebanon different governorates. It further aims to investigate predictors of compliance with seatbelt and helmet use. A cross-sectional observational field study was conducted at multiple governorates in Lebanon. Data collected included information on vehicles, road users and passengers. Univariate and multivariable logistic regression analyses were performed to identify trends in compliance with safety measures and distracted driving, and predictors of compliance. A total of 13,790 road users were observed. The rate of seatbelt and helmet use were 37.4% and 38.9%, respectively, among adults. Distracted behavior was present in 23.7% of car drivers and 22.8% of motorcyles adult riders. Compliance with seatbelt use was lower outside the capital city Beirut [OR = 5.236 (4.566-6.004), P <0.001], in males [OR = 1.688 (1.52-1.874), P <0.001], in drivers of taxi/vans [OR = 1.929 (1.71-2.175), P <0.001] or trucks [OR = 3.014 (2.434-3.732), P <0.001], and vehicles of lower price [OR = 3.291 (2.836-3.819), P <0.001]. Children vehicle passengers were 87.9% while motorcycles pillion riders were 12.1%. The rates for child car restraint and helmet use were 25.8% and 20.1%, respectively. Predictors of failure to use a child restraint system in vehicles were the youngest age group (0-5 years) [OR = 2.06, CI (1.40-3.02), P<0.001], sitting in the back seat [OR = 1.56, CI (1.09-2.23), P<0.001], ridding in the afternoon [OR = 1.43, CI (1.05-1.94), P = 0.02], and being outside Beirut [OR = 2.12, CI (1.41-3.17), P<0.00]. Public awareness efforts and better enforcement of road safety legislations are needed to increase the alarmingly low rates of compliance with safety measures and safeguard lives on the road.

Distracting tasks have persisting effects on young and older drivers' braking performance

It is well established that car driving performance suffers when the driver concurrently engages in a distracting activity, such as talking on a cell phone. The present study investigates whether the effects of driver distraction are short-lived, or rather persist for some time. Age-related differences are evaluated as well. Sixty-three young and 61 older adults were tested in a driving simulator. They were asked to follow a lead car that drove at a constant speed, and to concurrently engage in a pseudorandom sequence of distracting tasks (typing, reasoning, memorizing). When the lead car braked, participants had to brake as well to prevent a collision. The stimulus onset asynchrony between the braking task and the last preceding distraction was 11.49 ± 1.99 s. Each person was tested once in a multitasking condition (as described above), and once in a control condition without distracting tasks. Outcome measures quantified distance keeping and lane keeping while participants braked to the lead car. We found that braking responses differed significantly between conditions; this difference could be interpreted as a combination of performance deficits and compensatory strategies in the multitasking condition compared to the control condition. We also found significant differences between age groups, which could be interpreted similarly. Differences between age groups were less pronounced in the multitasking than in the control condition. All observed effects were associated with participants' executive functioning. Our findings confirm that distractions have an impact on braking responses, and they document for the first time that this impact can persist for about 11.5 s. We attribute this persistence to a task set effect, and discuss the practical relevance of our findings.

Orthopaedic Injuries Associated With Cell Phone Use Resulting in Emergency Department Visits: A 20-Year Analysis

INTRODUCTION

Cell phones are an integral part of daily life but are distractors that can contribute to injury. The present study uses a large national emergency department (ED) database to evaluate the frequency, anatomic location, and type of injuries associated with cell phone use. We hypothesize that orthopaedic injuries related to cell phone use have increased over time and affect certain body parts and age groups more than others.

METHODS

The 1999 to 2018 Nation Electronic Injury Surveillance System was queried for cell phone-related injuries leading to ED visits (injuries to the head or face or involving a landline were excluded). Demographics, type of orthopaedic injury, and body part injured were tabulated, and injuries were then classified over time as direct mechanical or cell phone use-associated, as well as related to texting compared with talking.

RESULTS

A weighted national total of 44,599 injuries met inclusion criteria. A marked increase was noted in the incidence of cell phone use-associated injuries over the time (2,900%). Injuries occurred in persons with mean ± standard deviation age of 36.6 ± 19.9 years old, predominantly in women (60.6%), at home (32.8%) or on the street (22.4%), and while walking (31.6%) or driving (18.16%). The distribution of orthopaedic injuries was defined and occurred most frequently in the neck, lower torso/hip, and ankle. The most common types of injuries were sprain/strain (56.8%) and fracture (32.6%). The proportion of fracture injury types was significantly greater in adults aged greater than 65 (P < 0.001). The proportion of injuries related to texting on a cell phone was greatest in the 13- to 29-year-old age group and declined as age increased.

DISCUSSION

Orthopaedic injures related to cell phone use resulting in ED visits have markedly increased over time. The distribution and characteristics of such injuries can be used in targeted public health education and policy development.

Acceptance of criteria for health and driver scoring in the general public in Germany

Numerous health insurers offer bonus programmes that score customers’ health behaviour, and car insurers offer telematics tariffs that score driving behaviour. In many countries, however, only a minority of customers participate in these programmes. In a population-representative survey of private households in Germany (N = 2,215), we study the acceptance of the criteria (features) on which the scoring programmes are based: the features for driver scoring (speed, texting while driving, time of driving, area of driving, accelerating and braking behaviour, respectively) and for health scoring (walking distance per day, sleeping hours per night, alcohol consumption, weight, participation in recommended cancer screenings, smoking status). In a second step, we model participants’ acceptance of both programmes with regard to the underlying feature acceptance. We find that insurers in Germany rarely use the features which the participants consider to be the most relevant and justifiable, that is, smoking status for health scoring and smartphone use for driver scoring. Heuristic models (fast-and-frugal trees) show that programme acceptance depends on the acceptance of a few features. These models can help to understand customers’ preferences and to design scoring programmes that are based on scientific evidence regarding behaviours and factors associated with good health and safe driving and are thus more likely to be accepted.

Examining driver distraction in the context of driving speed: An observational study using disruptive technology and naturalistic data

Considering the number of people who have been involved in crashes associated with driver distractions, it is important to understand the characteristics of distracted driving on public roadways. While experiments have indicated that driver distractions are associated with slower driving speeds, the methodologies tend to have limited external validity. Observational studies are often conducted under limited circumstances - be it time or location. Therefore, in order to better understand the nature of driver distractions, the authors investigated the relationships between driving speed, posted speed limits, and phone handling frequency through naturalistic driving data obtained (via disruptive technology) from 8,240 mobile application users on state-maintained highways throughout Texas. As a measure of manual distractions, a phone handling rate (PHR; times/hours driven) was calculated based on phone rotations. Within-subject comparisons were drawn for driving speed and posted speed limits under normal driving conditions and distracted conditions. The analysis revealed a strong negative correlation between PHR and driving speed (r_s = -0.87). Paired t-tests revealed significantly lower driving speeds (p = 0.000 < 0.01, d = -0.48, η = 0.69) and posted speed limits (p = 0.000 < 0.01, d = -0.20, η = 0.42) during phone handling events when compared to driving without phone handling. On average, users drove 3.26 mph slower in distracted conditions than in undistracted conditions. Driving speed had a larger effect size than posted speed limits. The findings were in line with existing theories and experiments as well as other observational studies conducted at fixed locations. Although this research did not reveal causal relations, it is noteworthy that speed reduction with manual distractions was observed under real road conditions. Spatial analyses are recommended to conduct in order to paint a more thorough picture of speed reduction, its relationship to space, and crash risks related to distracted driving.

Evaluation of a population health strategy to reduce distracted driving: Examining all "Es" of injury prevention

BACKGROUND

Cell phone use while driving (CPWD) increases the risk of crashing and is a major contributor to injuries and deaths. The objective of this study was to describe the evaluation of a multifaceted, evidence-based population health strategy for the reduction of distracted driving.

METHODS

A multipronged campaign was undertaken from 2014 to 2016 for 16- to 44-year-olds, based on epidemiology, focused on personal stories and consequences, using the "Es" of injury prevention (epidemiology, education, environment, enforcement, and evaluation). Education consisted of distracted driving videos, informational cards, a social media AdTube campaign, and a movie theater trailer, which were evaluated with a questionnaire regarding CPWD attitudes, opinions, and behaviors. Spatial analysis of data within a geographic information system was used to target advertisements. A random sample telephone survey evaluated public awareness of the campaign. Increased CPWD enforcement was undertaken by police services and evaluated by ARIMA time series modeling.

RESULTS

The AdTube campaign had a view rate of >10% (41,101 views), slightly higher for females. The top performing age group was 18- to 24-year-olds (49%). Our survey found 61% of respondents used handheld CPWD (14% all of the time) with 80% reporting our movie trailer made them think twice about future CPWD. A stakeholder survey and spatial analysis targeted our advertisements in areas of close proximity to high schools, universities, near intersections with previous motor vehicle collisions, high traffic volumes, and population density. A telephone survey revealed that 41% of the respondents were aware of our campaign, 17% from our print and movie theater ads and 3% from social media. Police enforcement campaign blitzes resulted in 160 tickets for CPWD. Following campaign implementation, there was a statistically significant mean decrease of 462 distracted driving citations annually (p = 0.001).

CONCLUSION

A multifaceted, evidence-based population health strategy using the Es of injury prevention with interdisciplinary collaboration is a comprehensive method to be used for the reduction of distracted driving.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Therapeutic, level IV.

Influence of built environment on the severity of vehicle crashes caused by distracted driving: A multi-state comparison

With recent increased attention to the consequences of distracted driving (DD), this research provides a comprehensive investigation of the role of the built environment on the severity of vehicle crashes caused by DD. Utilizing crash data collected from fifteen states in the United States for the period 2013-2017, the association between distracted driving crash severity and various built environment indicators was examined by the generalized ordered logit regression model. The results show that at a lower severity level, DD related crashes were found to be less severe at roundabouts or in urban areas, whereas the probability of injuries rather than property damage only (PDO) increases if an accident involves speeding or when occurring at an intersection or a curved road. Comparatively, at a higher severity level, the odds of severe (or fatal) injury involvement compared to minor injuries and PDO was found to be higher in a work-zone, a curved roadway, or when excessive speed was involved. Conversely, roundabouts and urban areas affected negatively in severe DD crash, which is consistent with the lower-level case. The study also reveals a state-specific variability of the influence of the built environment on the severity of DD related crashes. These findings provide a comprehensive understanding of the severity of DD related crashes for transportation safety planners or policymakers to develop customized policy recommendations, such as designing policies or roadway safety treatments, to curb the negative consequences of distracted driving.

Head and Neck Injuries Associated With Cell Phone Use

Importance

As cell phones gain more influence in daily life, they also become potentially more hazardous. Injuries resulting from cell phone use have long been reported largely in the context of driving-related incidents, but other mechanisms of injury have been underreported.

Objective

To assess the incidence, types, and mechanisms of head and neck injuries associated with cell phone use.

Design, Setting, and Participants

Retrospective cross-sectional study using data from a national database of individuals with head and neck injuries related to cell phone use who presented to emergency departments in the United States between January 1998 and December 2017.

Main Outcomes and Measures

Incidence, types, and mechanisms of injury related to cell phone use in the US population.

Results

A reported total of 2501 patients (1129 [55.0%] female, 795 [38.8%] white, and 772 [37.6%] aged 13-29 years) presented with injuries of the head and neck related to cell phone use; the estimated weighted national total was 76 043 patients (42 846 females [56.3%], 34 894 [45.9%] white, and 29 956 [39.4%] aged 13-29 years). The most commonly reported subsites of injuries in the head and neck region included the head (33.1% of estimated total); face, including eyelid, eye area, and nose (32.7%); and neck (12.5%). The most common injury diagnoses included laceration (26.3% of estimated total), contusion/abrasion (24.5%), and internal organ injury (18.4%). Age group distributions showed that most injuries associated with cell phone user distraction occurred among individuals aged 13 to 29 years (60.3%; Cramer V = 0.29). In addition, those younger than 13 years were significantly more likely to sustain direct mechanical injury from a cell phone (82.1%) than to have a cell phone use-associated injury (17.9%) (Cramer V = 0.305), whereas a cell phone use-associated injury was more likely than a direct mechanical injury to occur among those aged 50 to 64 years (68.2% vs 31.8%; Cramer V = 0.11) and those older than 65 years (90.3% vs 9.7%; Cramer V = 0.29).

Conclusions and Relevance

Cell phone-related injuries to the head and neck have increased steeply over the recent 20-year period, with many cases resulting from distraction. Although the disposition of most cases is simple, some injuries bear a risk of long-term complications. Many of these injuries occurred among those aged 13 to 29 years and were associated with common activities, such as texting while walking. These findings suggest a need for patient education about injury prevention and the dangers of activity while using these devices.

Investigation of the Relationship between Rainfall and Fatal Crashes in Texas, 1994–2018

Understanding how crash factors are impacted by rain is critical to road safety planning and management. This study assesses the impact of rain on traffic safety by conducting an analysis of the fatal crashes related to rain in Texas from 1994 to 2018. The fatal crash data was gathered from the Fatality Analysis Reporting System (FARS) database maintained by the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA). Environmental variables used in the analysis include month of the year, time of the day, temperature, and weather condition. The roadway-related factors identified include the posted speed limit, the number of lanes, route sign, and Vehicle Miles Traveled (VMT). The driver-related factors identified include age, gender, and the number of licensed drivers in total. Relative risk analysis was performed to statistically quantify the impact of rainy conditions at the hourly and monthly time scales. On average, rain-related fatal crashes represented about 6.8% of the total fatal crashes. However, the proportion shows higher variability at the annual, monthly, and hourly time scales and seems to be influenced by other factors such as the age and gender of the driver, type of the road, and posted roadway speed limit. Total and rain-related crashes show statistically significant decreasing trends when normalized by the total number of licensed drivers or vehicle miles travelled. The relative risk of a fatal crash during rainy conditions was always greater than 1.0 at hourly, monthly, and annual time scales. However, it shows significant variability at the monthly (1.07 to 2.78) and hourly scales (1.35 to 2.57). The relative risk is higher in less urbanized and drier counties, in general. Gender and age analysis reveals that male and young drivers are more likely to be involved in a fatal crash but less likely to be killed in the crash.

The influence of WeChat use on driving behavior in China: A study based on the theory of planned behavior

Driving has become common, and distracted driving, especially that caused by WeChat use, is a significant cause of traffic crashes. Based on the theory of planned behavior, this study analyzes self-reports from a sample of 286 drivers from China to explore the influence of different WeChat functions on driving behavior. The analyses reveal that the intention to use WeChat while driving can substantially predict the use of WeChat while driving. Moreover, drivers' attitudes can effectively predict whether they will send texts, listen to voice messages, and send and browse pictures on WeChat while driving. However, drivers' attitudes cannot effectively predict whether they will read texts or send voice messages on WeChat while driving. In recent years, WeChat has become a popular messaging software, and many drivers use it. Therefore, it is important and necessary to raise awareness among drivers about the dangers of using WeChat while driving.

Multimodal Hand Gesture Classification for the Human–Car Interaction

The recent spread of low-cost and high-quality RGB-D and infrared sensors has supported the development of Natural User Interfaces (NUIs) in which the interaction is carried without the use of physical devices such as keyboards and mouse. In this paper, we propose a NUI based on dynamic hand gestures, acquired with RGB, depth and infrared sensors. The system is developed for the challenging automotive context, aiming at reducing the driver’s distraction during the driving activity. Specifically, the proposed framework is based on a multimodal combination of Convolutional Neural Networks whose input is represented by depth and infrared images, achieving a good level of light invariance, a key element in vision-based in-car systems. We test our system on a recent multimodal dataset collected in a realistic automotive setting, placing the sensors in an innovative point of view, i.e., in the tunnel console looking upwards. The dataset consists of a great amount of labelled frames containing 12 dynamic gestures performed by multiple subjects, making it suitable for deep learning-based approaches. In addition, we test the system on a different well-known public dataset, created for the interaction between the driver and the car. Experimental results on both datasets reveal the efficacy and the real-time performance of the proposed method.

Complementary Deep and Shallow Learning with Boosting for Public Transportation Safety

To monitor road safety, billions of records can be generated by Controller Area Network bus each day on public transportation. Automation to determine whether certain driving behaviour of drivers on public transportation can be considered safe on the road using artificial intelligence or machine learning techniques for big data analytics has become a possibility recently. Due to the high false classification rates of the current methods, our goal is to build a practical and accurate method for road safety predictions that automatically determine if the driving behaviour is safe on public transportation. In this paper, our main contributions include (1) a novel feature extraction method because of the lack of informative features in raw CAN bus data, (2) a novel boosting method for driving behaviour classification (safe or unsafe) to combine advantages of deep learning and shallow learning methods with much improved performance, and (3) an evaluation of our method using a real-world data to provide accurate labels from domain experts in the public transportation industry for the first time. The experiments show that the proposed boosting method with our proposed features outperforms seven other popular methods on the real-world dataset by 5.9% and 5.5%.

Distracted driving of a motor vehicle on Brazilian federal highways as a cause of traffic accidents

INTRODUCTION

Distracted driving (DD) of a motor vehicle is considered an increasing risk factor for land transport accidents.

OBJECTIVE

To identify the tendency in the number of victims in DD accidents and in the number of offences due to cell phone use on Brazilian federal highways, as well as analyze the DD category in depth as it is being used in the country.

METHOD

A time series study with data on accidents with victims, made available by the Federal Highway Police, whose cause was distracted driving, from 2007 to 2016 and data on offences for driving using a cell phone.

RESULTS

There was a tendency towards a monthly increase in the number of distracted driving accident victims in the country up to mid-2011 (percentage monthly variation - PMV = 0.57%), followed by a significant decrease (PMV = -0.45%). Macro-regions showed similar behavior, except in the Southeast. There was a monthly increase in the number of offences caused by drivers using cell phones from 2007 to 2013.

CONCLUSION

There was a tendency towards monthly increases in the number of victims of distracted driving in Brazil and in most macro-regions up to 2011, followed by a subsequent downward tendency. The inaccurate nature of the expression "distraction" compromises the quality of the data and, consequently, the adequate estimation of victims attributable to this risk factor. The cell phone-driving dyad could be the root cause of accidents with victims caused by distracted driving in the country.

The Association between High-risk Behavior and Central Nervous System Injuries: Analysis of Traffic-related Fatalities in a Large Coroner's Series

High-risk behaviors leading to traffic fatalities are often a result of severe traumatic brain and spine injuries. The objective of the study was to analyze patterns of behavior in drivers and motorcyclists that are associated with central nervous system (CNS)-related prehospital deaths that may serve as a basis for future prevention initiatives. Our study group comprised 514 fatalities with severe CNS injuries documented at autopsy. The majority (n = 491) was the result of motor vehicle collisions (MVCs). In this group, male drivers predominated and the majority, 80 per cent, wore seatbelts. Toxicology analysis revealed 53 per cent of drivers with a mean concentration of ethanol above the legal limit. Texting while driving comprised 45 per cent of the study group. Less than 5 per cent of the fatalities were the result of road or weather conditions. In the motorcycle group (n = 23), 100 per cent of the victims were unhelmeted. We report a large autopsy series of CNS-related deaths with analysis of behavioral factors associated with the fatalities. Substance abuse and distracted driving are dominant patterns of high-risk behavior in MVCs and not wearing a motorcycle helmet is deadly for victims of motorcycle crashes.

Who uses a mobile phone while driving for food delivery? The role of personality, risk perception, and driving self-efficacy

INTRODUCTION

The existing literature on mobile phone use while driving (MPUWD) mainly targets the participants from general population and the young adults, however, few studies pay attention to this form of distracted driving with samples in professional contexts. The present study aims to bridge the gap by identifying the extent of and the motives behind making use of mobile phones while driving for food dispatch among deliveryman.

METHOD

The snowball sampling was used to collect the data (N = 317) through a self-reported questionnaire, including demographics, personality traits, risk perception, driving self-efficacy, and mobile phone use while driving.

RESULTS

Descriptive analysis for the assessed MPUWD behaviors showed that 96.3% (N = 315) of food deliveryman undertook the MPUWD behaviors, though disproportionate distribution among these behaviors existed. Structural equation modeling analysis displayed that psychoticism and driving self-efficacy directly predicted the MPUWD behaviors. The mediating role of driving self-efficacy was verified with the findings that driving self-efficacy completely mediated the relationships that between risk perception and MPUWD behaviors and that between extraversion and MPUWD behaviors, as well as partially mediated the correlation between psychoticism and MPUWD behaviors.

CONCLUSIONS

The present study confirms the prevalence of MPUWD behaviors among food deliveryman. The SEM estimates and bootstrap estimates suggest that personality traits and perceived risk perception per se display limited predicting utility to MPUWD behaviors among food deliveryman, whereas driving self-efficacy and the proposed predictors together well illustrate the assessed MPUWD behaviors among food deliveryman. Practical Applications: These findings imply that developing and implementing intervention efforts in a concerted way would curb these behaviors effectively.

In-depth approach for identifying crash causation patterns and its implications for pedestrian crash prevention

INTRODUCTION

A pedestrian crash occurs due to a series of contributing factors taking effect in an antecedent-consequent order. One specific type of antecedent-consequent order is called a crash causation pattern. Understanding crash causation patterns is important for clarifying the complicated growth of a pedestrian crash, which ultimately helps recommend corresponding countermeasures. However, previous studies lack an in-depth investigation of pedestrian crash cases, and are insufficient to propose a representative picture of causation patterns.

METHOD

In this study, pedestrian crash causation patterns were discerned by using the Driving Reliability and Error Analysis Method (DREAM). One hundred and forty-two pedestrian crashes were investigated, and five pedestrian pre-crash scenarios were extracted. Then, the crash causation patterns in each pre-crash scenario were analyzed; and finally, six distinct patterns were identified. Accordingly, 17 typical situations corresponding to these causation patterns were specified as well.

RESULTS

Among these patterns, the pattern related to distracted driving and the pattern related to an unexpected change of pedestrian trajectory contributed to a large portion of the total crashes (i.e., 27% and 24%, respectively). Other patterns also played an important role in inducing a pedestrian crash; these patterns include the pattern related to an obstructed line of sight caused by outside objects (9%), the pattern that involves reduced visibility (13%), and the pattern related to an improper estimation of the gap distance between the vehicle and the pedestrian (10%). The results further demonstrated the inter-heterogeneity of a crash causation pattern, as well as the intra-heterogeneity of pattern features between different pedestrian pre-crash scenarios. Conclusions and practical applications: Essentially, a crash causation pattern might involve different contributing factors by nature or dependent on specific scenarios. Finally, this study proposed suggestions for roadway facility design, roadway safety education and pedestrian crash prevention system development.

A Review of Data Analytic Applications in Road Traffic Safety. Part 1: Descriptive and Predictive Modeling

This part of the review aims to reduce the start-up burden of data collection and descriptive analytics for statistical modeling and route optimization of risk associated with motor vehicles. From a data-driven bibliometric analysis, we show that the literature is divided into two disparate research streams: (a) predictive or explanatory models that attempt to understand and quantify crash risk based on different driving conditions, and (b) optimization techniques that focus on minimizing crash risk through route/path-selection and rest-break scheduling. Translation of research outcomes between these two streams is limited. To overcome this issue, we present publicly available high-quality data sources (different study designs, outcome variables, and predictor variables) and descriptive analytic techniques (data summarization, visualization, and dimension reduction) that can be used to achieve safer-routing and provide code to facilitate data collection/exploration by practitioners/researchers. Then, we review the statistical and machine learning models used for crash risk modeling. We show that (near) real-time crash risk is rarely considered, which might explain why the optimization models (reviewed in Part 2) have not capitalized on the research outcomes from the first stream.

Mobile EEG identifies the re-allocation of attention during real-world activity

The distribution of attention between competing processing demands can have dramatic real-world consequences, however little is known about how limited attentional resources are distributed during real-world behaviour. Here we employ mobile EEG to characterise the allocation of attention across multiple sensory-cognitive processing demands during naturalistic movement. We used a neural marker of attention, the Event-Related Potential (ERP) P300 effect, to show that attention to targets is reduced when human participants walk compared to when they stand still. In a second experiment, we show that this reduction in attention is not caused by the act of walking per se. A third experiment identified the independent processing demands driving reduced attention to target stimuli during motion. ERP data reveals that the reduction in attention seen during walking reflects the linear and additive sum of the processing demands produced by visual and inertial stimulation. The mobile cognition approach used here shows how limited resources are precisely re-allocated according to the sensory processing demands that occur during real-world behaviour.

Sistema de indicadores de morbilidad y mortalidad por accidentes de tráfico: una revisión sistemática

Objetivo Elaborar un sistema de indicadores de morbilidad y mortalidad por accidentes de tráfico, con el fin de mejorar los procesos de recopilación y registro de la información de seguridad vial en el país.Materiales y Métodos Revisión sistemática cualitativa de artículos científicos publicados en revistas indexadas en las principales bases de datos (Scopus, PubMed, Lilacs, SciELO, Google Scholar), sobre accidentes de tráfico desde el año 1995 hasta el año 2015. La información recolectada pasó por 4 fases de revisión.Resultados Se seleccionaron 84 indicadores, agrupados en nueve dimensiones: accidentalidad, morbilidad, mortalidad, temporalidad, geoespacial, sociodemográfica, parque vehicular, impacto en salud pública, tipos y causas.Conclusiones Una gestión eficaz sobre seguridad vial exige que cada país cuente con un sistema de indicadores efectivo e institucionalizado que permita recolectar, analizar y gestionar la información de forma rápida y oportuna, enmarcada en el campo de la investigación científica, para difundir a la comunidad y organismos responsables de la seguridad vial, con miras a la adopción de medidas preventivas y correctivas. Por lo que, se recomienda a los organismos competentes de seguridad vial del país incorporar el sistema de indicadores elaborado en la presente investigación, lo cual permitirá contar con un sistema de registro da datos confiables.

Determining the incidence of distraction among trauma patients in all modes of transportation

BACKGROUND

The use of distracting technology is an increasing source of risk for injury among trauma patients. Both drivers and pedestrians show increased unsafe behavior. The data for prevalence and risk for distraction in trauma has varied widely. Our hypothesis is that distraction is more highly prevalent and widely distributed among all mechanisms of injury and variety of trauma patients.

METHODS

A 10-question survey of adult trauma victims at a Level I trauma center regarding distraction at time of event was performed, examining age, sex, ethnicity, education level, mode of injury and role in the accident (driver, passenger, pedestrian, bicyclist, motorcyclist). Multiple-variable logistic regression was performed to identify risk factors for distraction.

RESULTS

From June 2016 to October 2018, 1,316 patients were surveyed, and 1,011 (76.8%) patients reported their role in the traffic accident. The prevalence of distraction was 21.73% among drivers, 9.01% among passengers, 16.50% among pedestrians, 20.00% among bicyclists, and 8.09% among motorcyclists. Males (odds ratio [OR], 1.84; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.26-2.67) as well as all Others (OR, 2.09; 95% CI, 1.10-3.98) showed statistically significant increased risk for distraction. Motorcyclist (OR, 0.25; 95% CI, 0.13-0.50) and passenger (OR, 0.37; 95% CI, 0.18-0.77) roles during collision were a lowered risk of distraction. Furthermore, Asian/Pacific Islanders (OR, 1.62; 95% CI, 0.94-2.79) trended toward being at greater risk for distraction.

CONCLUSION

Distraction is prevalent among a wide range of traffic accident victims, not just drivers. Males as well as all Others are more likely to be distracted. In contrast, motorcyclists and passengers are less likely to be distracted. Further studies to assist in determining effective interventions and public safety efforts aimed at specific at-risk groups beyond motor vehicle drivers are warranted.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Epidemiological, level V.

Self-reported handheld device use while driving

In spite of research and awareness of the hazards associated with handheld mobile device use while driving, many motorists continue to engage in this risky behavior. The mobile device use while driving has a detrimental effect on the operation of the vehicle. It contributes significantly to distraction which is a leading cause of accidents. Especially, the use of text messaging and the dialing of a 10-digit number while driving can be attributable to crash risks. Phone use bans have a positive role in reducing mobile phone use for texting while operating vehicles. There are limited studies on whether drivers admit to the use of handheld devices while driving. The aim of this study was to identify the experiences, practices, and attitudes of handheld device use while driving. A total of 337 respondents nationwide replied to the survey on the attitudes and self-reported behaviors of handheld device use while driving. In the survey, the characteristics of handheld device users, use of handheld devices, and the differences in self-reported behaviors across states with and without device use restrictions were compared. The perceptions and experiences of device users are also examined. Based on the background of device users and their attitudes, a multivariate logistic regression is used to identify the characteristics of those who use handheld devices while driving. The model is relevant to this research because it allows the consideration and comparison of many variables to identify the attitudes of people towards distracted driving. The affirmative self-reporting of 59 percent of the respondents is a surprising result given that there are state bans on texting and the use of handheld mobile phones while driving. Older drivers are least likely to engage in these behaviors, compared to younger drivers and adult drivers. Based on the findings, targeted educational and enforcement campaigns to reduce device use during driving are suggested. Additional promising areas for further inquiry and research are also proposed.

Full moon and traffic accident-related emergency ambulance transport: A nationwide case-crossover study

BACKGROUND

Several studies have examined the association between environmental factors and traffic accidents. However, the role of a full moon in triggering emergency ambulance transport due to road traffic casualties is unclear. Thus, we aimed to examine whether a full moon contributes to the incidence of emergency transport due to road traffic crashes.

METHODS

We acquired nationwide data on daily emergency transport due to road traffic crashes from all 47 prefectures of Japan from 2010 to 2014. We conducted a time-stratified case-crossover study using conditional Poisson regression to examine the relationship between the occurrence of a full moon and emergency transport due to road traffic crashes for each prefecture. Prefecture-level results were combined using a random-effects meta-analysis to evaluate nation-level estimates.

RESULTS

There were 842,554 cases of emergency transport due to road traffic crashes across 1826 nights (62 full moon nights: n = 29,584; 1764 control nights: n = 812,970). On days with a full moon, the pooled adjusted relative risk (RR) of emergency transport due to traffic accidents was 1.042 (95% confidence interval [CI], 1.021-1.063). Overall, 4.03% (95% CI: 2.06-5.93) of the cases (1192 cases) were attributable to full moon nights. Stratified analyses revealed a significant increase in emergency transport due to traffic accidents on full moon nights for males, people aged ≥40 years, and before midnight.

CONCLUSIONS

Full moon nights are associated with an increase in the incidence of emergency transport due to road traffic crashes. These results indicate that public health strategies should account for full moon nights to decrease emergency transport due to traffic accidents.

Texting/Emailing While Driving Among High School Students in 35 States, United States, 2015

PURPOSE

Determine the prevalence and explore individual- and state-level factors associated with texting/emailing while driving (TWD) among adolescent drivers in the United States.

METHODS

Data from 35 states that administered the 2015 state Youth Risk Behavior Survey were analyzed. We used Poisson regression models with robust error variance to estimate prevalence ratios (PRs) for TWD.

RESULTS

Among the 101,397 high school students aged ≥ 14 years who had driven a vehicle during the past 30 days, 38% reported TWD at least once. TWD prevalence ranged from 26% in Maryland to 64% in South Dakota. TWD prevalence was higher in states with a lower minimum learner's permit age and in states where a larger percentage of students drove. Multivariable analyses revealed that the likelihood of TWD increased substantially with age, and white students were more likely to engage in TWD than students of all other races/ethnicities. Infrequent seatbelt users were 21% more likely to engage in TWD compared with frequent seatbelt users (adjusted PR = 1.21, 95% confidence interval: 1.16-1.26), and students who reported drinking and driving were almost twice as likely to TWD as compared to students who did not (adjusted PR = 1.91, 95% confidence interval: 1.79-2.04).

CONCLUSIONS

Prevalence of TWD among US high school students varied by more than two-fold across states. TWD prevalence was higher in states with lower minimum learner's permit ages and in states where a larger percentage of students drove. Older age, white race/ethnicity, and other risky driving behaviors were associated with TWD.

Driver distraction by smartphone use (WhatsApp) in different age groups

This paper investigates the effect that texting with WhatsApp, one of the most common applications for instant messaging, exerts on driving performance. Because distracted driving also affects older drivers, who can have seriously compromised vision, we also analysed the associations between visual-function parameters and driving performance. A total of 75 drivers, experienced in sending WhatsApp messages (≥10WhatsApp messages/week), participated in this study and were divided into four age categories. Visual-function tests included contrast sensitivity with and without glare, retinal straylight and objective assessment of optical quality. Simulated driving performance was assessed under a baseline driving condition (without distraction) as well as a texting condition (WhatsApp messages) while driving. The participants used their own mobile phone. Lastly, objective results of driving performance were compared with subjective self-report data from the Driver Behaviour Questionnaire (DBQ). The analysis indicated that functional changes occurring with age, such as a lower contrast sensitivity and greater retinal straylight, were correlated with a higher number of collisions, longer distances driven outside the lane, and greater standard deviation of lateral position (SDLP). The results showed a significant main effect of age for the driving-performance parameters. Also, compared to the baseline, texting WhatsApp messages while driving worsens driving performance for all age groups, most notably among older participants. Thus, the older drivers' SDLP was ∼14% higher than that for the baseline average of all the other drivers and rose to 29% under distraction, reflecting the impact of secondary tasks. The negative effect of the use of the smartphone during driving was also reflected in the number of collisions, with a greater risk of accidents in all the groups of drivers (by 8.3% for young adults, 25.0% for adults, 80.5% for middle-aged adults, and 134.5% for older drivers). Lastly, participants' subjective responses indicated that younger drivers (18-24 years) had a higher risk of deliberately violating safe driving practices (p < 0.05). The present study demonstrates that texting WhatsApp messages while driving significantly impairs the ability to drive safely, with older drivers being the group most adversely affected. It would be recommendable to include other nonstandard vision tests, which have shown associations with driving performance, in the examination for driver licensing. This would help raise the awareness of older drivers concerning their visual limitations, permitting them to adopt compensatory measures to improve their driving safety. Nevertheless, it is also necessary to raise awareness among the younger drivers of the risks involved in behaviour behind the wheel.

Cell phone use while driving laws and motor vehicle driver fatalities: differences in population subgroups and location

PURPOSE

Research suggests that cell phone use while driving laws are associated with lower driver fatalities. This study seeks to determine whether this relationship is modified by driver age (16-24, 25-39, 40-59, ≥60), sex (male, female), race/ethnicity (white non-Hispanic, white Hispanic, black non-Hispanic, other), or rurality (rural, urban).

METHODS

Fatality Analysis Reporting System data were merged with state legislation (2000-2014). The exposure was the type of legislation in effect. The outcome was non-alcohol-related driver fatalities by state-quarter-year. Incident rate ratios were estimated using generalized Poisson mixed regression for overdispersed count data with robust standard errors.

RESULTS

Amongst 190,544 drivers, compared to periods without bans, universal hand-held calling bans were associated with 10% (adjusted incident rate ratio = 0.90, 95% confidence interval 0.84, 0.96) lower non-alcohol-related driver fatalities overall and up to 13% lower fatalities across all age groups and sexes but not for race/ethnicity or rurality. When comparing state-quarter-years with bans to those without, universal texting bans were not associated with lower fatalities overall or for any demographic group.

CONCLUSIONS

The relationships between cell phone laws and non-alcohol-related driver fatalities are modified by driver demographics, particularly for universal hand-held bans. Universal hand-held calling bans may benefit more types of drivers compared to texting bans.

Does wearable device bring distraction closer to drivers? Comparing smartphones and Google Glass

BACKGROUND

Head-up and wearable displays, such as Google Glass™, are sometimes marketed as safe in-vehicle alternatives to phone-based displays, as they allow drivers to receive messages without eye-off-the-road glances. However, head-up displays can still compromise driver performance (e.g., He et al., 2015b), as the distracting effect of interacting with any device will depend on the user's multitasking strategies. The present experiment examined drivers' interaction with a head-down smartphone display and a wearable head-up display.

METHOD

Participants performed a simulated driving task while receiving and responding to text messages via smartphone or the head-mounted display (HMD) on the Google Glass™. Incoming messages were signaled by an auditory alert, and responses were made vocally.

RESULTS

When using Google Glass, participants' responses were quicker than that of smartphone, and the time to engage in a task did not vary according to lane-keeping difficulty. Results suggest that a willingness to engage more readily in distracting tasks may offset the potential safety benefits of wearable devices.

Do gaming disorder and hazardous gaming belong in the ICD-11? Considerations regarding the death of a hospitalized patient that was reported to have occurred while a care provider was gaming

There has been much debate regarding the extent to which different types and patterns of gaming may be considered harmful from individual and public health perspectives. A recent event in which a hospitalized patient was reported to have died while a care provider was gaming is worth considering as an example as to how gaming may distract individuals from work-related tasks or other activities, with potential negative consequences. As the 11th edition of the International Classification of Diseases is being developed, events like these are important to remember when considering entities like, and generating criteria for, disordered or hazardous gaming.

Emotional reactivity: Beware its involvement in traffic accidents

BACKGROUND

Reducing risk attributable to traffic accidents is a public health challenge. Research into risk factors in the area is now moving towards identification of the psychological factors involved, particularly emotional states. The aim of this study was to evaluate the link between emotional reactivity and responsibility in road traffic accidents. We hypothesized that the more one's emotional reactivity is disturbed, the greater the likelihood of being responsible for a traffic accident.

METHODS

This case-control study was based on a sample of 955 drivers injured in a motor vehicle crash. Responsibility levels were determined with a standardized method adapted from the quantitative Robertson and Drummer crash responsibility instrument. Emotional reactivity was assessed with the MATHYS.

RESULTS

Hierarchical cluster analysis discriminated four distinctive driver's emotional reactivity profiles: basic emotional reactivity (54%), mild emotional hyper-reactivity (29%), emotional hyper-reactivity (11%) and emotional hypo-reactivity (6%). Drivers who demonstrated emotional hypo-reactivity had a 2.3-fold greater risk of being responsible for a traffic accident than those with basic emotional reactivity.

CONCLUSION

Drivers' responsibility in traffic accidents depends on their emotional status. The latter can change the ability of drivers, modifying their behavior and thus increasing their propensity to exhibit risk behavior and to cause traffic accidents.

Road death trend in the United States: implied effects of prevention

This study estimates road deaths prevented by U.S. vehicle safety regulations, state laws, and other efforts based on comparison of actual deaths to those predicted from temperature and precipitation effects on exposure, migration to warmer areas, population growth, median age of the population, and vehicle mix. Logistic regression of risk factors predictive of road deaths in 1961, prior to the adoption of federal vehicle safety regulations, state behavioral change laws, and other preventive efforts were used to predict deaths in subsequent years given the changing prevalence of the risk factors from 1962 to 2015. The included risk factors are strong predictors of road death risk. Without the preventive efforts, an additional 5.8 million road deaths would likely have occurred in the U.S. from the initiation of federal safety standards for new vehicles in 1968 through 2015.

Perception and Practice of Road Safety among Medical Students, Mansoura, Egypt

Objectives

To assess the knowledge and attitude of medical students towards road safety and to determine their driving behavior and its relation to different related factors.

Methods

This cross-sectional study involved 480 medical students at Mansoura University, Egypt. A self-administered questionnaire was used to collect student personal data, knowledge about road safety, attitude towards road safety, and driving practices.

Results

More than 40% of students experienced an injury in the previous year, mainly as a pedestrian (56%), and 15.2% practiced driving, although only 9.6% had a driving licence. Most of the students had correct road safety knowledge except for awareness that the safe time to read maps is when your vehicle is parked (44%), one should drive in the left lane (29.6%), and one should overtake from the right-hand lane only (25.8%). The majority of the students reported that road traffic injuries can be prevented (89.2%). The mean score of the driving practices of the students ranged from 0.66±1.04 to 2.44±6.28 and rural residents showed significantly higher score regarding errors and lapses.

Conclusion

Good road safety knowledge and a favorable, low risk attitude, did not translate into improved road traffic behavior and this highlights the importance of stricter implementation of the existing rules and including road safety in medical education programs.

Detection-Response Task-Uses and Limitations

The Detection-Response Task is a method for assessing the attentional effects of cognitive load in a driving environment. Drivers are presented with a sensory stimulus every 3–5 s, and are asked to respond to it by pressing a button attached to their finger. Response times and hit rates are interpreted as indicators of the attentional effect of cognitive load. The stimuli can be visual, tactile and auditory, and are chosen based on the type of in-vehicle system or device that is being evaluated. Its biggest disadvantage is that the method itself also affects the driver’s performance and secondary task completion times. Nevertheless, this is an easy to use and implement method, which allows relevant assessment and evaluation of in-vehicle systems. By following the recommendations and taking into account its limitations, researchers can obtain reliable and valuable results on the attentional effects of cognitive load on drivers.

The full moon and motorcycle related mortality: population based double control study

OBJECTIVE

To test whether a full moon contributes to motorcycle related deaths.

DESIGN

Population based, individual level, double control, cross sectional analysis.

SETTING

Nighttime (4 pm to 8 am), United States.

PARTICIPANTS

13 029 motorcycle fatalities throughout the United States, 1975 to 2014 (40 years).

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE

Motorcycle fatalities during a full moon.

RESULTS

13 029 motorcyclists were in fatal crashes during 1482 relevant nights. The typical motorcyclist was a middle aged man (mean age 32 years) riding a street motorcycle with a large engine in a rural location who experienced a head-on frontal impact and was not wearing a helmet. 4494 fatal crashes occurred on the 494 nights with a full moon (9.10/night) and 8535 on the 988 control nights without a full moon (8.64/night). Comparisons yielded a relative risk of 1.05 associated with the full moon (95% confidence interval 1.02 to 1.09, P=0.005), a conditional odds ratio of 1.26 (95% confidence interval 1.17 to 1.37, P<0.001), and an absolute increase of 226 additional deaths over the study interval. The increase extended to diverse types of motorcyclists, vehicles, and crashes; was accentuated during a supermoon; and replicated in analyses from the United Kingdom, Canada, and Australia.

CONCLUSION

The full moon is associated with an increased risk of fatal motorcycle crashes, although potential confounders cannot be excluded. An awareness of the risk might encourage motorcyclists to ride with extra care during a full moon and, more generally, to appreciate the power of seemingly minor distractions at all times.

A meta-analysis of in-vehicle and nomadic voice-recognition system interaction and driving performance

Driver distraction is a growing and pervasive issue that requires multiple solutions. Voice-recognition (V-R) systems may decrease the visual-manual (V-M) demands of a wide range of in-vehicle system and smartphone interactions. However, the degree that V-R systems integrated into vehicles or available in mobile phone applications affect driver distraction is incompletely understood. A comprehensive meta-analysis of experimental studies was conducted to address this knowledge gap. To meet study inclusion criteria, drivers had to interact with a V-R system while driving and doing everyday V-R tasks such as dialing, initiating a call, texting, emailing, destination entry or music selection. Coded dependent variables included detection, reaction time, lateral position, speed and headway. Comparisons of V-R systems with baseline driving and/or a V-M condition were also coded. Of 817 identified citations, 43 studies involving 2000 drivers and 183 effect sizes (r) were analyzed in the meta-analysis. Compared to baseline, driving while interacting with a V-R system is associated with increases in reaction time and lane positioning, and decreases in detection. When V-M systems were compared to V-R systems, drivers had slightly better performance with the latter system on reaction time, lane positioning and headway. Although V-R systems have some driving performance advantages over V-M systems, they have a distraction cost relative to driving without any system at all. The pattern of results indicates that V-R systems impose moderate distraction costs on driving. In addition, drivers minimally engage in compensatory performance adjustments such as reducing speed and increasing headway while using V-R systems. Implications of the results for theory, design guidelines and future research are discussed.

Climate change, weather and road deaths

In 2015, a 7% increase in road deaths per population in the USA reversed the 35-year downward trend. Here I test the hypothesis that weather influenced the change in trend. I used linear regression to estimate the effect of temperature and precipitation on miles driven per capita in urbanizedurbanised areas of the USA during 2010. I matched date and county of death with temperature on that date and number of people exposed to that temperature to calculate the risk per persons exposed to specific temperatures. I employed logistic regression analysis of temperature, precipitation and other risk factors prevalent in 2014 to project expected deaths in 2015 among the 100 most populous counties in the USA. Comparison of actual and projected deaths provided an estimate of deaths expected without the temperature increase.

Attitudes and behaviors related to distracted driving in college students: a need for interventions in adolescence

Objective One of the biggest contributors to distracted driving among young people in the United States is technology. The objective of this study was to describe distracted driving behaviors among college students, with a specific focus on attitudes towards and use of social media. Methods With written permission, a survey was adapted from the Distracted Driving Public Opinion Poll distributed by the National Safety Council. The survey comprised 43 questions assessing attitudes and behaviors. A total of 411 students enrolled in a personal health course were invited to complete the survey. In total 324 surveys were completed, resulting in a response rate of 79%. Results Among students with a driver's license, 95.2% reported engaging in distracted driving behaviors. The use of social media while driving was common, with 30.7% reporting that they glance at, read, or post to social media while driving, most commonly on Snapchat or Instagram. It was common for students to make or answer phone calls (72.0%), review or send text messages (54.6%), or glance at or read automatic notifications (43.3%). Almost all students (91.5%) reported that they believed a hands-free solution is safer than holding the phone while driving, but only 67.9% reported that they usually used a hands-free device. Students in a health major and students who drive in urban areas were more likely to engage in distracted driving behaviors. Conclusions These findings suggest a need for interventions, particularly those which target adolescents in an attempt to deter these behaviors as they transition into adulthood.

Effect of mobile phone proliferation on crash notification times and fatality rates

INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this study was to evaluate whether increased proliferation of mobile telephones has been associated with decreased MVC notification times and/or decreased MVC fatality rates in the United States (US).

METHODS

We used World Bank annual mobile phone market penetration data and US Fatality Analysis Reporting System (FARS) fatal MVC data for 1994-2014. For each year, phone proliferation was measured as mobile phones per 100 population. FARS data were used to calculate MVC notification time (time EMS notified - time MVC occurred) in minutes, and to determine the MVC fatality rate per billion vehicle miles traveled (BVMT). We used basic vector auto-regression modeling to explore relationships between changes in phone proliferation and subsequent changes in median and 90th percentile MVC notification times, as well as MVC fatality rates.

RESULTS

From 1994 to 2014, larger year-over-year increases in phone proliferation were associated with larger decreases in 90th percentile notification times for MVCs occurring during daylight hours (p=0.004) and on the national highway system (p=0.046) two years subsequent, and crashes off the national highway system three years subsequent (p=0.023). There were no significant associations between changes in phone proliferation and subsequent changes in median crash notification times, nor with subsequent changes in MVC fatality rates.

CONCLUSION

Between 1994 and 2014 increased mobile phone proliferation in the U.S. was associated with shorter 90th percentile EMS notification times for some subgroups of fatal MVCs, but not with decreases in median notification times or overall MVC fatality rates.