Prevalence of episodic homelessness among adult childbearing women in Philadelphia, PA

Homelessness and Birth Outcomes in the Pregnancy Risk Assessment Monitoring System, 2016-2020

OBJECTIVES

This study aimed to estimate the prevalence of homelessness shortly before or during pregnancy and describe differences in maternal characteristics and adverse birth outcomes between people reporting homelessness and not reporting homelessness.

METHODS

We used 2016-2020 Pregnancy Risk Assessment Monitoring System (PRAMS) data from 31 sites to estimate the prevalence of self-reported homelessness during the 12 months before giving birth. We used logistic regression models to evaluate the association between homelessness and adverse birth outcomes, specifically small for gestational age (SGA), low birth weight (LBW), and preterm birth (PTB).

RESULTS

Of 138,603 respondents, 4,045 reported homelessness, representing 2.4% of weighted respondents. Respondents reporting homelessness differed from respondents who did not report homelessness in maternal demographic characteristics, health conditions, behavioral and environmental risk factors, and adequacy of prenatal care. In unadjusted models, homelessness was associated with higher prevalences of SGA, LBW, and PTB (PR 1.38, 95% CI 1.21-1.57; PR 1.73, 95% CI 1.56-1.91; PR 1.42, 95% CI 1.25-1.61; respectively). After adjusting for maternal age, race and ethnicity, education, BMI, and cigarette smoking, prevalence ratios were attenuated and no longer significant.

CONCLUSIONS FOR PRACTICE

Although homelessness was not independently associated with adverse birth outcomes in adjusted models, people reporting homelessness before or during pregnancy represent a group at increased risk of inadequate health care utilization and adverse birth outcomes due to other underlying demographic and social factors. Health care providers can play a critical role in identifying if patients may be experiencing homelessness and facilitating connections to social support.

Housing Stability and Access to General Healthcare and Reproductive Healthcare Among Women in Ohio

Background

The relationship between housing instability and reproductive healthcare is understudied. We examined the association between housing insecurity and access and utilization of general healthcare, contraceptive healthcare, and abortion care.

Methods

Using data from a population-representative survey of adult reproductive-age Ohio women (N = 2,529), we assessed housing insecurity (not paying rent/mortgage on time in the past year). We examined associations between housing insecurity and the following outcomes: (1) not being able to access general healthcare in the past year; (2) experiencing delays or difficulties in accessing contraceptive healthcare in the past year; and (3) ever having an abortion. We used unadjusted and adjusted logistic regression models. We selected confounders a priori and included age, socioeconomic status, and healthcare status.

Results

Overall, 10.6% of Ohio women of adult reproductive age experienced housing insecurity. Approximately 27.5% of respondents were not able to access general healthcare and 10.4% experienced delays or difficulties in accessing contraceptive care. Compared to housing-secure respondents, housing-insecure women were less able to access general healthcare (adjusted odds ratio [aOR]:2.16; 95% confidence interval [CI]:1.45–3.23) and more likely to experience delays or difficulties when accessing contraceptive care (aOR:1.74; 95% CI:1.00-3.04). Insecure housing was not statistically associated with ever having an abortion (aOR:1.76; 95% CI:0.93–3.34).

Conclusions

In this study, recent housing insecurity was associated with poorer access to general and contraceptive healthcare. Studies utilizing multidimensional measures of housing insecurity and other material insecurity measures are needed to further explore the relationship between material insecurity and access to general and contraceptive care.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10995-022-03492-5.

Reduced rate of postpartum readmissions among homeless compared with non-homeless women in New York: a population-based study using serial, cross-sectional data

Objective

To assess differences in rates of postpartum hospitalisations among homeless women compared with non-homeless women.

Design

Cross-sectional secondary analysis of readmissions and emergency department (ED) utilisation among postpartum women using hierarchical regression models adjusted for age, race/ethnicity, insurance type during delivery, delivery length of stay, maternal comorbidity index score, other pregnancy complications, neonatal complications, caesarean delivery, year fixed effect and a birth hospital random effect.

Setting

New York statewide inpatient and emergency department databases (2009–2014).

Participants

82 820 and 1 026 965 postpartum homeless and non-homeless women, respectively.

Main outcome measures

Postpartum readmissions (primary outcome) and postpartum ED visits (secondary outcome) within 6 weeks after discharge date from delivery hospitalisation.

Results

Homeless women had lower rates of both postpartum readmissions (risk-adjusted rates: 1.4% vs 1.6%; adjusted OR (aOR) 0.87, 95% CI 0.75 to 1.00, p=0.048) and ED visits than non-homeless women (risk-adjusted rates: 8.1% vs 9.5%; aOR 0.83, 95% CI 0.77 to 0.90, p<0.001). A sensitivity analysis stratifying the non-homeless population by income quartile revealed significantly lower hospitalisation rates of homeless women compared with housed women in the lowest income quartile. These results were surprising due to the trend of postpartum hospitalisation rates increasing as income levels decreased.

Conclusions

Two factors likely led to lower rates of hospital readmissions among homeless women. First, barriers including lack of transportation, payment or childcare could have impeded access to postpartum inpatient and emergency care. Second, given New York State’s extensive safety net, discharge planning such as respite and sober living housing may have provided access to outpatient care and quality of life, preventing adverse health events. Additional research using outpatient data and patient perspectives is needed to recognise how the factors affect postpartum health among homeless women. These findings could aid in lowering readmissions of the housed postpartum population.

The effect of a no-cost contraceptive initiative on method selection by women with housing insecurity

OBJECTIVES

To compare the sociodemographic characteristics of participants in a contraceptive initiative by housing security and determine the association between housing insecurity on contraceptive method selection before and after the removal of cost.

STUDY DESIGN

This cross-sectional assessment includes 4,327 reproductive-aged participants in the HER Salt Lake Contraceptive Initiative who sought new contraceptive services and reported housing status at enrollment. HER Salt Lake prospectively explored the impact of improved contraceptive access on socioeconomic outcomes in Salt Lake County (USA). For six months (September 2015-March 2016) we collected control data, which included clinic standard-of-care cost-sharing. The intervention started March 2016, and provided no-cost contraception services and unlimited opportunities for method switching over the subsequent three years.

RESULTS

There were 964 (22%) housing-insecure participants. Compared to those with stable housing, housing-insecure individuals more commonly identified as a sexual minority, received public assistance and lacked health insurance. Housing-insecure women preferentially selected long-acting reversible contraception during the control period (aOR 1.60; 95%CI 1.01-2.56), but method selection equalized across housing status during the intervention.

CONCLUSIONS

When cost is not a barrier, all women desire a comprehensive selection of contraceptive methods, regardless of housing security. Contraceptive clients in this vulnerable population need interventions which address access barriers to all methods to support reproductive planning.

IMPLICATIONS

Unintended pregnancy during housing insecurity may result in homelessness. This study found housing-insecure women desire access to all contraceptive methods, not just long acting reversible contraception. Integration of comprehensive family planning initiatives into efforts to address homelessness is essential to support this vulnerable population in their reproductive planning.

Impact of Deployment on Reproductive Health in U.S. Active-Duty Servicewomen and Veterans

Reproductive-age women are a fast-growing component of active-duty military personnel who experience deployment and combat more frequently than previous service-era women Veterans. With the expansion of the number of women and their roles, the United States Departments of Defense and Veterans Affairs have prioritized development and integration of reproductive services into their health systems. Thus, understanding associations between deployments or combat exposures and short- or long-term adverse reproductive health outcomes is imperative for policy and programmatic development. Servicewomen and women Veterans may access reproductive services across civilian and military or Veteran systems and providers, increasing the need for awareness and communication regarding deployment experiences with a broad array of providers. An example is the high prevalence of military sexual trauma reported by women Veterans and the associated mental health diagnoses that may lead to a lifetime of high risk-coping behaviors that increase reproductive health risks, such as sexually transmitted infections, unintended pregnancies, and others. Care coordination models that integrate reproductive healthcare needs, especially during vulnerable times such as at the time of military separation and in the immediate postdeployment phase, may identify risk factors for early intervention with the potential to mitigate lifelong risks.

"It seems kinda like a different language to us": Homeless youths' attitudes and experiences pertaining to condoms and contraceptives

Homeless youth become pregnant or involved in pregnancies at high rates. There are many ways by which unintended pregnancies may be prevented, including the use of condoms and other contraceptives. However, there is a dearth of research regarding contraceptive use among this vulnerable youth population, and especially through lenses that consider homeless youths' diverse gender identities, expressions, and sexualities. This study qualitatively explores homeless youths' attitudes and experiences regarding condom and other contraceptive use. Data were obtained from interviews with 30 youth experiencing homelessness, ages 18-21. Youth reported inconsistent use of condoms and other contraceptives, which youth often attributed to their perceptions of contraceptive inaccessibility and exorbitant cost. Most youth also did not know where to obtain contraceptive information and services, and reported transportation barriers and fear of being stigmatized in health care settings, particularly in relation to their gender identities and sexualities. Findings suggest that reproductive and sexual health information and services are urgently needed by all homeless young people, and from low-barrier, non-judgmental, and empathetic sources.

Timing and Duration of Pre- and Postnatal Homelessness and the Health of Young Children

: media-1vid110.1542/5804912861001PEDS-VA_2017-4254Video Abstract OBJECTIVES: Prenatal homelessness is associated with elevated risks of adverse neonatal outcomes. How the timing and duration of homelessness during pregnancy and/or a child's early life relate to postnatal child health is unclear.

METHODS

We interviewed 20 571 low-income caregivers of children <4 years old in urban pediatric clinics and/or emergency departments in 5 US cities. Categories of homelessness timing were prenatal, postnatal, both, or never; postnatal duration was >6 months or <6 months.

RESULTS

After controlling for birth outcomes and other potential confounders, compared with never-homeless children, children who were homeless both pre- and postnatally were at the highest risk of the following: postneonatal hospitalizations (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] 1.41; confidence interval [CI] 1.18-1.69), fair or poor child health (aOR 1.97; CI 1.58-2.47), and developmental delays (aOR 1.48; CI 1.16-1.89). There was no significant association with risk of underweight (aOR 0.95; CI 0.76-1.18) or overweight status (aOR 1.07; CI 0.84-1.37). Children <1 year old with >6 months of homelessness versus those who were never homeless had high risks of fair or poor health (aOR 3.13; CI 2.05-4.79); children 1 to 4 years old who were homeless for >6 months were at risk for fair or poor health (aOR 1.89; CI 1.38-2.58).

CONCLUSIONS

After controlling for birth outcomes, the stress of prenatal and postnatal homelessness was found to be associated with an increased risk of adverse pediatric health outcomes relative to those who were never homeless. Interventions to stabilize young families as quickly as possible in adequate and affordable housing may result in improved pediatric health outcomes.

The "Safety Net" of Community Care: Leveraging GIS to Identify Geographic Access Barriers to Texas Family Planning Clinics for Homeless Women Veterans

The Veterans Healthcare Administration (VHA) is developing a civilian referral system to address specialty access issues to VHA healthcare. Homeless women Veterans may not have the resources to navigate referral systems when travel to VHA Medical Centers (VAMCs) is limited, especially for family planning needs. Recent Texas legislation restricted funding to civilian, publically-funded family planning clinics, limiting comprehensive services. This study's goal was to assess geographic availability of VAMCs and family planning clinics for homeless Texan women Veterans. We identified 3,246 Texan women Veterans, age 18-44y with administrative homelessness evidence anytime between 2002-2015. Significant clusters of homeless women Veterans were near VHA facilities, yet mean travel distance was 24.1 miles (range 0-239) to nearest family planning clinic compared to 82.6 miles (range 0.8316.4) to nearest VAMC. Community clinics need ongoing civilian funding support if the VHA is to rely on their geographic availability as a safety net for vulnerable Veterans.

Long-acting Reversible Contraception Among Homeless Women Veterans With Chronic Health Conditions: A Retrospective Cohort Study

BACKGROUND

US women Veterans are at increased risk of homelessness and chronic health conditions associated with unintended pregnancy. Veterans Health Administration (VHA) provision of long-acting reversible contraception (LARC) can assist in healthy pregnancy planning.

OBJECTIVES

To evaluate perinatal risk factors and LARC exposure in ever-homeless women Veterans.

RESEARCH DESIGN

A retrospective cohort study of women Veterans using VHA administrative data from fiscal years 2002-2015.

SUBJECTS

We included 41,747 ever-homeless women Veterans age 18-44 years and 46,391 housed women Veterans matched by military service period. A subgroup of 7773 ever-homeless and 8674 matched housed women Veterans deployed in Iraq and Afghanistan [Operations Enduring Freedom/Iraqi Freedom/New Dawn (OEF/OIF/OND)] conflicts comprised a second analytic cohort.

MEASURES

Descriptive statistics compared demographic, military, health conditions, and LARC exposure in ever-homeless versus housed women Veterans. Multivariable logistic regression explored factors associated with LARC exposure in the OEF/OIF/OND subgroup.

RESULTS

All health conditions were significantly higher in ever-homeless versus housed Veterans: mental health disorder in 84.5% versus 48.7% (P<0.001), substance abuse in 35.8% versus 8.6% (P<0.001), and medical conditions in 74.7% versus 55.6% (P<0.001). LARC exposure among all VHA users was 9.3% in ever-homeless Veterans versus 5.4% in housed Veterans (P<0.001). LARC exposure in the OEF/OIF/OND cohort was 14.1% in ever-homeless Veterans versus 8.2% in housed Veterans (P<0.001). In the OEF/OIF/OND cohort, homelessness along Veterans with medical and mental health indicators were leading LARC exposure predictors.

CONCLUSIONS

The VHA is successfully engaging homeless women Veterans and providing LARC access. The prevalence of perinatal risk factors in ever-homeless women Veterans highlights a need for further programmatic enhancements to improve reproductive planning.

Barriers to Long-Acting Reversible Contraceptive Uptake Among Homeless Young Women

STUDY OBJECTIVE

To identify barriers to long-acting reversible contraception (LARC) uptake among homeless young women.

DESIGN

In this mixed methods study surveys and guided interviews were used to explore women's contraceptive and reproductive experiences, interactions with the health care system, and their histories of homelessness.

SETTING

All surveys and interviews were conducted at a homeless drop-in center or shelter.

PARTICIPANTS

Fifteen women between 18 and 24 years of age with a past year history of homelessness.

INTERVENTIONS

None.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Perceived barriers to contraceptive use, including knowledge and access barriers and interactions with the health care system around reproductive health.

RESULTS

Confusion about the possibility of early termination of LARC, and the perception that providers deliberately withhold selective information about contraceptive options to bias contraceptive decision-making, were 2 key new findings. Women also reported interest in visual aids accompanying verbal contraceptive counseling. Pregnancy attitudes and history of reproductive and sexual coercion also influenced contraceptive decision-making and reported interest in LARC methods.

CONCLUSION

Comprehensive counseling about all contraceptive options, including LARC, are important for targeting the perceived gaps in contraceptive education and care among homeless young women.

Characteristics of Mothers Caring for Children During Episodes of Homelessness

This study provides a description of the physical, psychological, and substance use problems of adult homeless women who are and are not caring for children. We also examined differences in the characteristics of these two groups of women. Interviews were conducted with 148 homeless women from three mid-sized U.S. cities, 24.3 % of whom were caring for at least one child. Our results showed that women caring for children were more likely to be sheltered and have health insurance. Homeless women caring for children and solitary homeless women were generally similar in terms of substance abuse problems. However, rates of Borderline Personality Disorder were higher among women caring for children than among solitary homeless women. Our results are somewhat consistent with previous research, with the exception of substance abuse problems and mental health problems, which were shown to be equally problematic for all women, regardless of current caregiving status.

The paradox of homeless youth pregnancy: a review of challenges and opportunities

Compared to their housed counterparts, homeless youth become pregnant at exceptionally high rates. Causes of such pregnancies are multifaceted, while a paradoxically high proportion of these pregnancies are intended. This review discusses causes and risk factors associated with homeless youth pregnancies, and notes experiences of pregnancy decision-making discord, challenges encountered during and following pregnancy, and difficulties faced by homeless youth when or if they become parents. Because homeless youth face a wide array of unique risks, future research would benefit from exploring alternative approaches to prevention to reduce pregnancies and improve sexual and reproductive health outcomes among this population.

Health behaviors and infant health outcomes in homeless pregnant women in the United States

OBJECTIVE

To describe selected demographics; maternal health behaviors before, during, and after pregnancy; and infant health outcomes among homeless women in the United States.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

Analyses are based on Pregnancy Risk Assessment Monitoring System data from 31 participating states from 2000 to 2007 that were linked to birth certificate data, which contain demographic and medical information collected through the state's vital records system. Responses were then weighted to be representative of all women who gave birth in each state during that year. Assessment of these data takes into account the complex sampling designs employed by the states.

RESULTS

Four percent of women reported homelessness within 12 months before pregnancy, with the highest percentage in Illinois, followed by Oregon and Washington. Homeless women were younger, unmarried, uninsured, less educated, less likely to initiate and sustain breastfeeding, and had less prenatal care and well-visits. They were also more likely to be black, Hispanic, smoke cigarettes, be underweight or have class III obesity, and not take preconception multivitamins. Infants had lower birth weights, a longer hospital stay, and were more likely to receive neonatal intensive care.

CONCLUSIONS

In this study we provide additional insight into homelessness in the perinatal period and provide information on ways to direct interventions aimed at improving the health of homeless mothers and infants. Additional research is needed to determine factors that influence pregnancy weight gain and infant feeding practices among homeless women and how this affects infant health.

Response to Homeless Childbearing Women’s Health Care Learning Needs

The study findings showed that homeless childbearing women are at greatest risk for cancer, violence, poor nutrition, sexually transmitted infections, unplanned pregnancy, and adverse pregnancy outcomes. Collaborating with personnel at a women’s shelter, the authors studied homeless childbearing women’s knowledge, attitudes, and beliefs about general health promotion, healthy pregnancy promotion, and preterm labor prevention. Guided by the Integrative Model of Behavioral Prediction and Change, 45 homeless women participated in focus groups. They were 28.7 years old (range 18-44 years), and approximately 87% of these women had custody of their children. Three themes identified included things you do to stay healthy during pregnancy, where you learned about staying healthy, and women’s knowledge about preterm labor and general health promotion. These findings informed an 8-week educational session (1 hr/week). During the past year, four 8-week sessions were conducted with attendance between 8 and 14 participants. Each week a different health topic was discussed incorporating the associated unique challenges of homelessness.

Pregnancy and mental health of young homeless women

Pregnancy rates among young women who are homeless are significantly higher than rates among housed young women in the United States (J. M. Greene & C. L. Ringwalt, 1998). Yet, little research has addressed mental health or risk and resilience among young mothers who are homeless. Based on a sample from the Midwest Longitudinal Study of Homeless Adolescents, this study explores pregnancy and motherhood in unaccompanied homeless young women over a period of 3 years. The data are supplemented by in-depth interviews with a subset of young women. Results show that almost half (46.4%) of sexually active young women who are homeless (n=222, M age = 17.2) had been pregnant at baseline. Among those who stated they had children between Waves 2 and 13 (n=90), only half reported caring for their children consistently over time, and one fifth reported never seeing their children. Of the participants with children in their care at the last interview (Wave 13), almost one third met criteria for lifetime major depressive episode, lifetime posttraumatic stress disorder, and lifetime drug abuse, and half met criteria for lifetime antisocial personality disorder. Twelve-month diagnoses are also reported. The impacts of homelessness on maternal and child outcomes are discussed.

Incident smoking during pregnancy and the postpartum period in a low-income urban population

OBJECTIVES

We determined the prevalence of first lifetime use of cigarettes during pregnancy or in the early postpartum period (incident smoking) and identified sociodemographic and health-related characteristics of incident smokers.

METHODS

We used statistics based on data from a longitudinal study of a large cohort of pregnant, low-income, urban women (n = 1,676) to describe the timing of first-time use and to compare incident smokers with those who had never smoked and those who had already smoked prior to pregnancy.

RESULTS

About one in 10 (10.2%) women who had not previously smoked initiated cigarette smoking during pregnancy or in the early postpartum period. Compared with those who had never smoked, incident smokers were more likely to report high levels of stress and to have elevated levels of depressive symptomatology, which may be rooted in relatively poor social and economic conditions.

CONCLUSION

A significant number of women may be initiating smoking during pregnancy or in the early postpartum period. These women have characteristics that are consistent with the risk factors associated with smoking. Further research is warranted to determine prevalence in other populations, identify the risk factors for incident smoking, and assess the potential for primary prevention efforts designed to help women who had previously avoided cigarette use to remain smoke-free throughout pregnancy and in the postpartum period.

Maternal health behaviors and infant health outcomes among homeless mothers: U.S. Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC) 2000-2007

OBJECTIVE

To determine whether participation in the Women, Infants, and Children Program is associated with improved maternal and infant health outcomes among homeless women in the Pregnancy Risk Assessment Monitoring System.

METHOD

Analyses were based on Pregnancy Risk Assessment Monitoring System participants from 31 states/cities in the United States, 2000-2007 (n=272,859). Overall, 4% of women completing the Pregnancy Risk Assessment Monitoring System survey were homeless, with 76% participating in the Women, Infants, and Children Program, a federally-funded supplemental nutrition program for low-income women and children less than 5 years old.

RESULTS

Among women in the Pregnancy Risk Assessment Monitoring System survey who reported using the Women, Infants, and Children Program, those experiencing homelessness were older, less educated, less likely to have private health insurance, and more likely to receive government assistance. Homeless women in the Women, Infants, and Children Program compared with those not in the program were significantly more likely to have a higher body mass index, to initiate breastfeeding after delivery, have prenatal care visits, have a longer gestational age, and have a greater infant birth weight.

CONCLUSION

Characteristics of homeless pregnant women choosing to participate in the Women, Infants, and Children Program are consistent with the requirements for program participation for women in general. Homeless women accessing the Women, Infants, and Children Program had better maternal and infant health outcomes.

Beyond marital status: the quality of the mother-father relationship and its influence on reproductive health behaviors and outcomes among unmarried low income pregnant women

In populations where the majority of pregnancies occur to unmarried women, exploring the quality of partner relationships and reproductive health is warranted. This study assesses differences in psychosocial characteristics, health behaviors, and birth outcomes between unmarried pregnant women who reported having a 'good' relationship with their baby's father, compared to those who reported having a 'fair' or 'poor' relationship with their baby's father. This research was part of a prospective study of low-income urban women. All unmarried women (n = 3,633) enrolled during their first prenatal visit were asked questions designed to differentiate between being in a good, fair or poor relationship with the baby's father. The worse the quality of the relationship, the worse the outcome, with dose-response associations between the quality of the relationship, emotional health, health behaviors, and birthweight. Compared to women in good relationships, those in poor relationships were more likely to have depressive symptoms (aPR 1.93; 95% CI: 1.65, 2.25), stress (aPR 1.24; 95% CI: 1.14, 1.35), use drugs (aPR 1.34; 95% CI: 1.11, 1.61) and smoke (aPR 1.28; 95% CI: 1.10, 1.49). Although infants born to mothers in poor relationships had the highest rate of low birth weight, the differences were not significant. Delving beyond marital status to assess the quality of partner relationships among unmarried mothers is important. Further research is needed to understand the complex interplay of individual, social and environmental factors promoting or hindering stable and supportive partner relationships among socially disadvantaged populations of pregnant women.

Prevalence, characteristics, and associated health and health care of family homelessness among fifth-grade students

OBJECTIVES

We describe the lifetime prevalence and associated health-related concerns of family homelessness among fifth-grade students.

METHODS

We used a population-based, cross-sectional survey of 5147 fifth-grade students in 3 US cities to analyze parent-reported measures of family homelessness, child health status, health care access and use, and emotional, developmental, and behavioral health and child-reported measures of health-related quality of life and exposure to violence.

RESULTS

Seven percent of parents reported that they and their child had experienced homelessness (i.e., staying in shelters, cars, or on the street). Black children and children in the poorest families had the highest prevalence of homelessness (11%). In adjusted analyses, most general health measures were similar for children who had and had not been homeless. Children who had ever experienced homelessness were more likely to have an emotional, behavioral, or developmental problem (odds ratio [OR] = 1.7; 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.1, 2.6; P = .01), to have received mental health care (OR = 2.2; 95% CI = 1.6, 3.2; P < .001), and to have witnessed serious violence with a knife (OR = 1.6; 95% CI = 1.1, 2.3; P = .007) than were children who were never homeless.

CONCLUSIONS

Family homelessness affects a substantial minority of fifth-grade children and may have an impact on their emotional, developmental, and behavioral health.

To house or not to house: the effects of providing housing to homeless substance abusers in treatment

OBJECTIVES

Housing typically is not provided to homeless persons during drug abuse treatment. We examined how treatment outcomes were affected under 3 different housing provision conditions.

METHODS

We studied 196 cocaine-dependent participants who received day treatment and no housing (NH), housing contingent on drug abstinence (ACH), or housing not contingent on abstinence (NACH). Drug use was monitored with urine testing.

RESULTS

The ACH group had a higher prevalence of drug abstinence than the NACH group (after control for treatment attendance), which in turn had a higher prevalence than the NH group. All 3 groups showed significant improvement in maintaining employment and housing.

CONCLUSIONS

The results of this and previous trials indicate that providing abstinence-contingent housing to homeless substance abusers in treatment is an efficacious, effective, and practical intervention. Programs to provide such housing should be considered in policy initiatives.