Comparison of Body Water Turnover in Endurance Runners and Age-matched Sedentary Men

Isotope Dilution for Measuring Total Energy Expenditure, Water Turnover, and Total Body Water in Athletes: A Systematic Review

Isotope-based tracer methods allow the determination of total energy expenditure (TEE), water turnover (rH2O), and total body water (TBW) in free-living conditions. These methods have exciting applications in athletes. However, the limited number of available measurements constrains their applicability. The aim was to describe the application of isotope dilution techniques for measuring TEE, rH2O, and TBW in athletic populations. A comprehensive search (https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/7932T) was performed in three databases: PubMed, EBSCO (CINAHL, MEDLINE, and SPORTDiscus), and Cochrane Library. A total of 1,540 records were identified (564 excluded) and 174 through other sources. After excluding 53 duplicates, 1,097 articles were screened. A total of 121 studies were included, totaling 3,244 measurements from different types of sports, age range, and tier level, with 1,020 from female athletes and 139 measurements where sex was not reported. For TEE, 75 studies were included with values ranging from 1,939 to 10,070 kcal/day. For rH2O, 15 studies were included with values ranging from 2.7 to 13.4 L/day. For TBW, 77 studies were included with values ranging from 29.8 to 76.8 kg. Variability was observed across the studies among the variables of interest. Overall, males showed higher TEE, rH2O, and TBW values than females, with endurance sports showing the greatest variability in energy and water flux, and TBW values varying most in team and mixed sports. Future research should increase representation of females, athletes with disabilities, and Tier 5 "world-class" athletes to establish normative values across sports, age groups, and sex while applying standardized isotope dilution methodologies.

Contribution of Dietary Composition on Water Turnover Rates in Active and Sedentary Men

Body water turnover is a marker of hydration status for measuring total fluid gains and losses over a 24-h period. It can be particularly useful in predicting (and hence, managing) fluid loss in individuals to prevent potential physical, physiological and cognitive declines associated with hypohydration. There is currently limited research investigating the interrelationship of fluid balance, dietary intake and activity level when considering body water turnover. Therefore, this study investigates whether dietary composition and energy expenditure influences body water turnover. In our methodology, thirty-eight males (19 sedentary and 19 physically active) had their total body water and water turnover measured via the isotopic tracer deuterium oxide. Simultaneous tracking of dietary intake (food and fluid) is carried out via dietary recall, and energy expenditure is estimated via accelerometery. Our results show that active participants display a higher energy expenditure, water intake, carbohydrate intake and fibre intake; however, there is no difference in sodium or alcohol intake between the two groups. Relative water turnover in the active group is significantly greater than the sedentary group (Mean Difference (MD) [95% CI] = 17.55 g·kg^-1·day^-1 [10.90, 24.19]; p = < 0.001; g[95% CI] = 1.70 [0.98, 2.48]). A penalised linear regression provides evidence that the fibre intake (p = 0.033), water intake (p = 0.008), and activity level (p = 0.063) predict participants' relative body water turnover (R²= 0.585). In conclusion, water turnover is faster in individuals undertaking regular exercise than in their sedentary counterparts, and is, in part, explained by the intake of water from fluid and high-moisture content foods. The nutrient analysis of the participant diets indicates that increased dietary fibre intake is also positively associated with water turnover rates. The water loss between groups also contributes to the differences observed in water turnover; this is partly related to differences in sweat output during increased energy expenditure from physical activity.

High-but not moderate-intensity exercise acutely attenuates hypercapnia-induced vasodilation of the internal carotid artery in young men

PURPOSE

Exercise-induced increases in shear rate (SR) across different exercise intensities may differentially affect hypercapnia-induced vasodilation of the internal carotid artery (ICA), a potential index of cerebrovascular function. We aimed to elucidate the effects of exercise intensity on ICA SR during exercise and post-exercise hypercapnia-induced vasodilation of the ICA in young men.

METHODS

Twelve healthy men completed 30 min of cycling at moderate [MIE; 65 ± 5% of age-predicted maximal heart rate (HR_max)] and high (HIE; 85 ± 5% HR_max) intensities. Hypercapnia-induced vasodilation was induced by 3 min of hypercapnia (target end-tidal partial pressure of CO₂ + 10 mmHg) and was assessed at pre-exercise, 5 min and 60 min after exercise. Doppler ultrasound was used to measure ICA diameter and blood velocity during exercise and hypercapnia tests.

RESULTS

SR was not altered during either exercise (interaction and main effects of time; both P > 0.05). ICA conductance decreased during HIE from resting values (5.1 ± 1.3 to 3.2 ± 1.0 mL·min^-1·mmHg^-1; P < 0.01) but not during MIE (5.0 ± 1.3 to 4.0 ± 0.8 mL·min^-1·mmHg^-1; P = 0.11). Consequently, hypercapnia-induced vasodilation declined immediately after HIE (6.9 ± 1.7% to 4.0 ± 1.4%; P < 0.01), but not after MIE (7.2 ± 2.1% to 7.3 ± 1.8%; P > 0.05). Sixty minutes after exercise, hypercapnia-induced vasodilation returned to baseline values in both trials (MIE 8.0 ± 3.1%; HIE 6.4 ± 2.9%; both P > 0.05).

CONCLUSION

The present study showed blunted hypercapnia-induced vasodilation of the ICA immediately after high-intensity exercise, but not a moderate-intensity exercise in young men. Given that the acute response is partly linked to the adaptive response in the peripheral endothelial function, the effects of aerobic training on cerebrovascular health may vary depending on exercise intensity.

Water turnover among human populations: Effects of environment and lifestyle

OBJECTIVES

To discuss the environmental and lifestyle determinants of water balance in humans and identify the gaps in current research regarding water use across populations.

METHODS

We investigated intraspecific variation in water turnover by comparing data derived from a large number of human populations measured using either dietary survey or isotope tracking. We also used published data from a broad sample of mammalian species to identify the interspecific relationship between body mass and water turnover.

RESULTS

Water facilitates nearly all physiological tasks and water turnover is strongly related to body size among mammals (r2=0.90). Within humans, however, the effect of body size is small. Instead, water intake and turnover vary with lifestyle and environmental conditions. Notably, despite living physically active lives in conditions that should increase water demands, the available measures of water intake and turnover among small-scale farming and pastoralist communities are broadly similar to those in less active, industrialized populations.

CONCLUSIONS

More work is required to better understand the environmental, behavioral, and cultural determinants of water turnover in humans living across a variety of ecosystems and lifestyles. The results of such work are made more vital by the climate crisis, which threatens the water security of millions around the globe.

Deuterium- and Tritium-Labelled Compounds: Applications in the Life Sciences

Hydrogen isotopes are unique tools for identifying and understanding biological and chemical processes. Hydrogen isotope labelling allows for the traceless and direct incorporation of an additional mass or radioactive tag into an organic molecule with almost no changes in its chemical structure, physical properties, or biological activity. Using deuterium-labelled isotopologues to study the unique mass-spectrometric patterns generated from mixtures of biologically relevant molecules drastically simplifies analysis. Such methods are now providing unprecedented levels of insight in a wide and continuously growing range of applications in the life sciences and beyond. Tritium (³ H), in particular, has seen an increase in utilization, especially in pharmaceutical drug discovery. The efforts and costs associated with the synthesis of labelled compounds are more than compensated for by the enhanced molecular sensitivity during analysis and the high reliability of the data obtained. In this Review, advances in the application of hydrogen isotopes in the life sciences are described.

Determination of steady-state protein breakdown rate in vivo by the disappearance of protein-bound tracer-labeled amino acids: a method applicable in humans

A method to determine the rate of protein breakdown in individual proteins was developed and tested in rats and confirmed in humans, using administration of deuterium oxide and incorporation of the deuterium into alanine that was subsequently incorporated into body proteins. Measurement of the fractional breakdown rate of proteins was determined from the rate of disappearance of deuterated alanine from the proteins. The rate of disappearance of deuterated alanine from the proteins was calculated using an exponential decay, giving the fractional breakdown rate (FBR) of the proteins. The applicability of this protein-specific FBR approach is suitable for human in vivo experimentation. The labeling period of deuterium oxide administration is dependent on the turnover rate of the protein of interest.

δ2H and δ18O of human body water: a GIS model to distinguish residents from non-residents in the contiguous USA

An understanding of the factors influencing the isotopic composition of body water is important to determine the isotopic composition of tissues that are used to reconstruct movement patterns of humans. The δ(2)H and δ(18)O values of body water (δ(2)H(bw) and δ(18)O(bw)) are related to the δ(2)H and δ(18)O values of drinking water (δ(2)H(dw) and δ(18)O(dw)), but clearly distinct because of other factors including the composition of food. Here, we develop a mechanistic geographical information system (GIS) model to produce spatial projections of δ(2)H(bw) and δ(18)O(bw) values for the USA. We investigate the influence of gender, food, and drinking water on the predicted values by comparing them with the published values. The strongest influence on the predicted values was related to the source of δ(2)H(dw) and δ(18)O(dw) values. We combine the model with equations that describe the rate of turnover to produce estimates for the time required for a non-resident to reach an isotopic equilibrium with a resident population.

Changes in total body water content during running races of 21.1 km and 56 km in athletes drinking ad libitum

OBJECTIVE

To measure changes in body mass (BM), total body water (TBW), fluid intake, and blood biochemistry in athletes during 21.1-km and 56-km foot races.

DESIGN

Observational study.

SETTING

2009 Two Oceans Marathon, South Africa.

PARTICIPANTS

Twenty-one (21.1 km) and 12 (56 km) participants were advised to drink according to thirst or their own race drink plan (ad libitum).

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Body mass, TBW, plasma osmolality, plasma sodium (p[Na]), and plasma total protein ([TP]) concentrations were measured before and after race. Fluid intake was recorded from recall after race.

RESULTS

Significant BM loss occurred in both races (21.1 km; -1.4 ± 0.6 kg; P < 0.000 and 56 km; -2.5 ± 1.1 kg; P < 0.000). Total body water was reduced in the 56-km race (-1.4 ± 1.1 kg; P < 0.001). A negative linear relationship was found between percentage change (%Δ) in TBW and %Δ in BM in the 56-km runners (r = 0.6; P < 0.01). Plasma osmolality and [TP] increased significantly in the 56-km runners (6.8 ± 8.2 mOsm/kg H2O; P < 0.05 and 5.4 ± 4.4 g/L; P < 0.01, respectively), but all other biochemical measures were within the normal range.

CONCLUSIONS

Although TBW decreased in the 56-km race and was maintained in the 21.1-km race, the change in TBW over both races was less than the BM, suggesting that not all BM lost during endurance exercise is a result purely of an equivalent reduction in TBW. These findings support the interpretation that the body primarily defends p[Na] and not BM during exercise and that a reduction in BM can occur without an equivalent reduction in TBW during prolonged exercise. Furthermore, these data support that drinking without controlling for BM loss may allow athletes to complete these events.

The Effects of 6 Months of Increased Water Intake on Blood Sodium, Glomerular Filtration Rate, Blood Pressure, and Quality of Life in Elderly (Aged 55–75) Men

OBJECTIVES

To study whether there are any negative or positive effects of 6 months of increased fluid intake in reasonably healthy elderly men.

DESIGN

Randomized trial.

SETTING

Community-based.

PARTICIPANTS

One hundred forty-one healthy participants aged 55 to 75.

INTERVENTION

One group was given the advice to increase their daily fluid intake by 1.5 L of water; the other group was given placebo medication (8 mL inactive syrup per day).

MEASUREMENTS

At 6 months blood sodium, glomerular filtration rate (GFR), blood pressure, and quality of life (QOL) were measured. The changes in water turnover were measured using deuterium.

RESULTS

Most subjects did not manage to increase their fluid intake by 1.5 L. The average increase in the intervention group was approximately 1 L. Twenty-four-hour water turnover in the water group was 359 mL (95% confidence interval=171-548) higher than that of the control group at 6-month follow-up. Blood pressure, sodium level, GFR, and QOL did not change significantly in either group during the intervention period. In addition, the cases reporting a worsening on the effect measures were equally distributed over the two study groups.

CONCLUSION

The advice to increase fluid intake by 1.5 L had no negative effects in reasonably healthy men aged 55 to 75.