Photosensitized Degradation of Amitriptyline and Its Active Metabolite Nortriptyline in Aqueous Fulvic Acid Solution

Photodegradation of typical psychotropic drugs in the aquatic environment: a critical review

Continuous consumption combined with incomplete removal during wastewater treatment means residues of psychotropic drugs (PDs), including antidepressants, antipsychotics, antiepileptics and illicit drugs, are continuously entering the aquatic environment, where they have the potential to affect non-target organisms. Photochemical transformation is an important aspect to consider when evaluating the environmental persistence of PDs, particularly for those present in sunlit surface waters. This review summarizes the latest research on the photodegradation of typical PDs under environmentally relevant conditions. According to the analysis results, four classes of PDs discussed in this paper are influenced by direct and indirect photolysis. Indirect photodegradation has been more extensively studied for antidepressants and antiepileptics compared to antipsychotics and illicit drugs. Particularly, the photosensitization process of dissolved organic materials (DOM) in natural waters has received significant research attention due to its ubiquity and specificity. The direct photolysis pathway plays a less significant role, but it is still relevant for most PDs discussed in this paper. The photodegradation rates and pathways of PDs are influenced by various water constituents and parameters such as DOM, nitrate and pH value. The contradictory results reported in some studies can be attributed to differences in experimental conditions. Based on this analysis of the existing literature, the review also identifies several key aspects that warrant further research on PD photodegradation. These results and recommendations contribute to a better understanding of the environmental role of water matrixes and provide important new insights into the photochemical fate of PDs in aquatic environments.

An Overview of Degradation Strategies for Amitriptyline

Antidepressant drugs play a crucial role in the treatment of mental health disorders, but their efficacy and safety can be compromised by drug degradation. Recent reports point to several drugs found in concentrations ranging from the limit of detection (LOD) to hundreds of ng/L in wastewater plants around the globe; hence, antidepressants can be considered emerging pollutants with potential consequences for human health and wellbeing. Understanding and implementing effective degradation strategies are essential not only to ensure the stability and potency of these medications but also for their safe disposal in line with current environment remediation goals. This review provides an overview of degradation pathways for amitriptyline, a typical tricyclic antidepressant drug, by exploring chemical routes such as oxidation, hydrolysis, and photodegradation. Connex issues such as stability-enhancing approaches through formulation and packaging considerations, regulatory guidelines, and quality control measures are also briefly noted. Specific case studies of amitriptyline degradation pathways forecast the future perspectives and challenges in this field, helping researchers and pharmaceutical manufacturers to provide guidelines for the most effective degradation pathways employed for minimal environmental impact.

Mechanistic and Kinetic Consideration of the Photochemically Generated Oxidative Organic Radicals in Dissolved Black Carbon Solutions under Simulated Solar Irradiation

The photochemically generated oxidative organic radicals (POORs) in dissolved black carbon (DBC) was investigated and compared with that in dissolved organic matter (DOM). POORs generated in DBC solutions exhibited higher one-electron reduction potential values (1.38-1.56 V) than those in DOM solutions (1.22-1.38 V). We found that the photogeneration of POORs from DBC is enhanced with dissolved oxygen (DO) increasing, while the inhibition of POORs is observed in reference to DOM solution. The behavior of the one-electron reducing species (DBC•-/DOM•-) was employed to explain this phenomenon. The experimental results revealed that the DO concentration had a greater effect on DBC•- than on DOM•-. Low DO levels led to a substantial increase in the steady-state concentration of DBC•-, which quenched the POORs via back-electron reactions. Moreover, the contribution of POORs to the degradation of 19 emerging organic contaminants (EOCs) in sunlight-exposed DBC and DOM solutions was estimated. The findings indicate that POORs play an important role in the photodegradation of EOCs previously known to react with triplets, especially in DBC solutions. Compared to DOM solutions, POOR exhibits a lower but considerable contribution to EOC attenuation. This study enhances the understanding of pollutant fate in aquatic environments by highlighting the role of DBC in photochemical pollutant degradation and providing insights into pollutant transformation mechanisms involving POORs.

Construction of cubic CaTiO3 perovskite modified by highly-dispersed cobalt for efficient catalytic degradation of psychoactive pharmaceuticals

Sulfate radical mediated advanced oxidation processes (SR-AOPs) have emerged as a promising alternative for emerging contaminants degradation. However, high activity and great stability are commonly difficult to juggle, and the structure-activity correlations are still ambiguous. This study constructed the cubic CaTiO3 perovskite modified by highly-dispersed cobalt for peroxymonosulfate (PMS) activation to improve the specific lattice plane exposure and reduce the metal leaching simultaneously. 98% of amitriptyline (AMT) degradation was achieved within 60 min under the condition of 200 mg/L Co0.1-CTO and 100 mg/L PMS. The results indicated that surface Co2+/Co3+ redox couple and lattice oxygen were responsible for PMS activation, and the evolution of ·OH, SO4·- and 1O2 were revealed. According to density functional theory (DFT) calculations, the highly-dispersed Co on cubic surface effectively captured PMS and promoted electron transfer for the generation of ·OH and SO4·-, while more oxygen atoms exposed on Co0.1-CTO(200) surface facilitated the generation of 1O2. Briefly, this study provides a novel strategy of catalyst synthesis in PMS activation for water treatment.

Mechanisms of interfacial catalysis and mass transfer in a flow-through electro-peroxone process

To investigate the catalytic mechanism and mass transfer efficiency in the removal of amitriptyline using an electro-peroxide process, a CuFe₂O₄-modified carbon cloth cathode was prepared and utilized in a reaction unit. The results demonstrated a remarkable efficacy of the system, achieving 91.0% amitriptyline removal, 68.3% mineralization, 41.2% mineralization current efficiency, and 0.24 kWh/m³ energy consumption within just five minutes of treatment. The study revealed that the exposed Fe atoms of the ferrite nanoparticles, with a size of 22.7 nm and 89.7% crystallinity, functioned as mediators to bind the adsorbed O atoms. The 3d_xy, 3d_xz, and 3d²_z orbitals of Fe atoms interacted with the 2p_z orbital of O atoms of H₂O₂ and O₃ to form σ and π bonds, facilitating the adsorption-activation of H₂O₂ and O₃ into hydroxyl radicals. These hydroxyl radicals (∼ 1.15 × 10¹³ mol/L) were distributed at the cathode-solution interface and rapidly consumed along the direction of liquid flow. The flow-through cathode design improved the mass transfer of aqueous O₃ and in-situ generated H₂O₂, leading to an increased yield of hydroxyl radicals, as well as the contact time and space between hydroxyl radicals and amitriptyline. Ultimately, this resulted in a higher degradation efficiency of the system.

Bioaccumulation potential of the tricyclic antidepressant amitriptyline in a marine Polychaete, Nereis virens

The continual discharge of pharmaceuticals from wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) into the marine environment, even at concentrations as low as ng/L, can exceed levels that induce sublethal effects to aquatic organisms. Amitriptyline, a tricyclic antidepressant, is the most prescribed antidepressant in Norway, though the presence, potential for transport, and uptake by aquatic biota have not been assessed. To better understand the release and bioaccumulative capacity of amitriptyline, laboratory exposure studies were carried out with field-collected sediments. Influent and effluent composite samples from the WWTP of Stavanger (the 4th largest city in Norway) were taken, and sediment samples were collected in three sites in the proximity of this WWTP discharge at sea (WWTP discharge (IVAR), Boknafjord, and Kvitsøy (reference)). Polychaetes (Nereis virens) were exposed to field-collected sediments, as well as to Kvitsøy sediment spiked with 3 and 30 μg/g amitriptyline for 28 days. The WWTP influent and effluent samples had concentrations of amitriptyline of 4.93 ± 1.40 and 6.24 ± 1.39 ng/L, respectively. Sediment samples collected from IVAR, Boknafjord, and Kvitsøy had concentrations of 6.5 ± 3.9, 15.6 ± 12.7, and 12.7 ± 8.0 ng/g, respectively. Concentrations of amitriptyline were below the limit of detection in polychaetes exposed to sediment collected from Kvitsøy and IVAR, and 5.2 ± 2.8 ng/g in those exposed to Boknafjord sediment. Sediment spiked with 3 and 30 μg/g amitriptyline had measured values of 423.83 ± 33.1 and 763.2 ± 180.5 ng/g, respectively. Concentrations in worms exposed to the amended sediments were 9.5 ± 0.2 and 56.6 ± 2.2 ng/g, respectively. This is the first known study to detect measurable concentrations of amitriptyline in WWTP discharge in Norway and accumulation in polychaetes treated with field-collected sediments, suggesting that amitriptyline has the potential for trophic transfer in marine systems.

Rapid Detection of Amitriptyline in Dried Blood and Dried Saliva Samples with Surface-Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy

There is growing demand for rapid, nondestructive detection of trace-level bioactive molecules including medicines, toxins, biomolecules, and single cells, in a variety of disciplines. In recent years, surface-enhanced Raman scattering has been increasingly applied for such purposes, and this area of research is rapidly growing. Of particular interest is the detection of such compounds in dried saliva spots (DSS) and dried blood spots (DBS), often in medical scenarios, such as therapeutic drug monitoring (TDM) and disease diagnosis. Such samples are usually analyzed using hyphenated chromatography techniques, which are costly and time consuming. Here we present for the first time a surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy protocol for the detection of the common antidepressant amitriptyline (AMT) on DBS and DSS using a test substrate modified with silver nanoparticles. The validated protocol is rapid and non-destructive, with a detection limit of 95 ppb, and linear range between 100 ppb and 1.75 ppm on the SERS substrate, which covers the therapeutic window of AMT in biological fluids.

Photosensitized Transformation of Hydrogen Peroxide in Dissolved Organic Matter Solutions under Simulated Solar Irradiation

Hydrogen peroxide plays an important role in photochemical processes in aquatic environments. However, whether it can be transformed by photoexcited chromophoric dissolved organic matter (CDOM) remains unclear. Therefore, this study examined the photosensitized degradation of H₂O₂ in CDOM-enriched solutions under simulated solar irradiation. Our results suggest that the presence of CDOM enhances the photodegradation rate of H₂O₂ via the photosensitization process and ^·OH is generated stoichiometrically with H₂O₂ attenuation. Experimental results with model photosensitizers indicate that one-electron reducing species of CDOM (CDOM^·-), not triplet CDOM, is the primary reactive species that reduces H₂O₂ to yield ^·OH. By monitoring the variation of CDOM^·-, the reaction rate constant of CDOM^·- with H₂O₂ was estimated to be 1.5-fold greater than that with O₂. Furthermore, a wastewater effluent was exposed to simulated solar irradiation with the addition of H₂O₂, and the results demonstrated that the photodegradation of trace organic contaminants (TrOCs) was significantly enhanced by the increased ^·OH level. Overall, the current study provided new insights into the photochemical formation of ^·OH via the one-electron reduction of H₂O₂ by CDOM^·-. The solar irradiation of wastewater with H₂O₂ enhancement could be a useful and economically beneficial advanced oxidation process for TrOC abatement.

Roles of humic substances redox activity on environmental remediation

Humic substances (HS) as representative natural organic matters and the most common organic compounds existing in the environment, has been applied to the treatment and remediation of environmental pollution. This review systematically introduces and summarizes the redox activity of HS for the remediation of environmental pollutants. For inorganic pollutants (such as silver, chromium, mercury, and arsenic), the redox reaction of HS can reduce their toxicity and mobilization, thereby reducing the harm of these pollutants to the environment. The concentration and chemical composition of HS, environmental pH, ionic strength, and competing components affect the degree and rate of redox reactions between inorganic pollutants and HS significantly. With regards to organic pollutants, HS has photocatalytic activity and produces a large number of reactive oxygen species (ROS) under the light which reacts with organic pollutants to accelerate the degradation of organic pollutants. Under the affection of HS, the redox of Fe(III) and Fe(II) can enhance the efficiency of Fenton-like reaction to degrade organic pollutants. Finally, the research direction of HS redox remediation of environmental pollution is prospected.

Formation of halonitromethanes from methylamine in the presence of bromide during UV/Cl2 disinfection

The UV/Cl₂ process is commonly used to achieve a multiple-barrier disinfection and maintain residuals. The study chose methylamine as a precursor to study the formation of high-toxic halonitromethanes (HNMs) in the presence of bromide ions (Br^-) during UV/Cl₂ disinfection. The maximum yield of HNMs increased first and then decreased with increasing concentration of Br^-. An excessively high concentration of Br^- induced the maximum yield of HNMs in advance. The maximum bromine incorporation factor (BIF) increased, while the maximum bromine utilization factor (BUF) decreased with the increase of Br^- concentration. The maximum yield of HNMs decreased as pH value increased from 6.0 to 8.0 due to the deprotonation process. The BUF value remained relatively higher under an acidic condition, while pH value had no evident influence on the BIF value. The maximum yield of HNMs and value of BUF maximized at a Cl₂:Br^- ratio of 12.5, whereas the BIF value remained relatively higher at low Cl₂:Br^- ratios (2.5 and 5). The amino group in methylamine was first halogenated, and then released into solution as inorganic nitrogen by the rupture of C-N bond or transformed to nitro group by oxidation and elimination pathways. The maximum yield of HNMs in real waters was higher than that in pure water due to the high content of dissolved organic carbon. Two real waters were sampled to verify the law of HNMs formation. This study helps to understand the HNMs formation (especially brominated species) when the UV/Cl₂ process is adopted as a disinfection technique.

Mechanistic investigation of humic substances assisted photodegradation of imipramine under simulated sunlight

Imipramine (IMI) is a frequently prescribed tricyclic antidepressant and widely detected in the natural waters, while the environmental fate of IMI is yet poorly understood. Here, we investigated the photodegradation of IMI under simulated sunlight in the presence of humic substances (HS), typically including humic acid (HA) and fulvic acid (FA). The direct and indirect IMI photodegradation was found to increase both with increasing pH and with deoxygenation of the reaction solutions. The excited triplet state of HS (³HS^⁎) was mainly responsible for the photosensitized degradation of IMI according to the steady-state quenching and direct time-resolved experiments. The electron transfer interaction between ³HS^⁎ and IMI was observed by laser flash photolysis (LFP) with bimolecular reaction rate constants of (4.9 ± 0.4) × 10⁹ M^-1 s^-1. Evidence of electron transfer from IMI to ³HS^⁎ was further demonstrated by the photoproduct analysis. The indirect photodegradation was triggered off in the side chain of IMI with the nonbonding nitrogen electron transferring to ³HS^⁎, followed by hydroxylation, demethylation and cleavage of the side chain. Very important that HS photosystem does not lose its efficiency with decreasing of IMI concentration, meaning that the studied photosystem still be used at environmentally relevant concentrations of IMI. These results suggest that photodegradation could be an important attenuation pathway for IMI in HS-rich and anaerobic natural waters.

Assessing the contribution of hydroxylation species in the photochemical transformation of primidone (pharmaceutical)

Pharmaceutical and personal care products (PPCPs) are a group of emerging contaminants that have frequently been detected in aqueous environments. Phototransformation driven by solar irradiation is one of the most important natural processes for the elimination of PPCPs. In this study, primidone (PMD) was chosen as a model "photorefractory" compound. A series of experiments were conducted to assess if reactive intermediates (RIs), such as hydroxyl radical (HO), singlet oxygen (¹O₂), and triplet states of dissolved organic matter (³DOM^⁎), inhibited or enhanced the photochemical transformation of PMD under simulated solar irradiation. The results indicate that HO plays a key role in the photodegradation of PMD and that dissolved oxygen can affect the degradation rate of PMD by promoting HO formation. Our results demonstrated that PMD can not only react with free HO (HO_-free) but also react with lower-energy hydroxylation agents (HO_-like). The contributions of HO_-free and HO_-like to PMD degradation in various dissolved organic matter (DOM) solutions were estimated by a methane-quenching experiment. The results indicated that the HO_-like species were important in the photodegradation of "photorefractory" compounds. The bimolecular reaction rate constant of the reaction of free HO with PMD was measured as (5.21 ± 0.02) × 10⁹ M^-1 s^-1 by using electron pulse radiolysis. Furthermore, PMD was used as a probe to estimate the steady-state concentration of HO_-free in various DOM solutions. Using the multivariate statistical strategies of orthogonal projection to latent structures discriminant analysis (OPLS-DA) and hierarchical clustering, 28 photochemical transformation products (TPs) of PMD were successfully identified from the DOM matrix.

Photodegradation of 2,4-dichlorophenol and rhodamine B over n-type ZnO/p-type BiFeO3 heterojunctions: detailed reaction pathway and mechanism

The development of new technologies for efficient degradation of pollutant has been an increasing demand in the globe due to the serious environmental issues. Herein, we report n-type ZnO/p-type BiFeO₃ composites as highly efficient visible light nanophotocatalysts prepared via a wet chemical solution method. Based on the measurements of ^•OH-related fluorescence (FL) spectra, photoluminescence (PL) spectra, photoelectrochemical I-V curves, and electrochemical impedance spectra (EIS), it is demonstrated that the photo-induced charge carrier (electron-hole pairs) in the as-prepared n-type ZnO/p-type BiFeO₃ composites with proper amount of the coupled ZnO (10% by mass) exhibits high separation compared with the bare BiFeO₃ (BFO) nanoparticles. This is well responsible for the superior visible light photocatalytic performance of the composites for 2,4-dichlorophenol (2,4-DCP) and rhodamine B (RhB) degradation. It is confirmed by means of scavenger test and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC/MS) analysis of the intermediate products that ^•OH is the pre-dominant oxidant involved in the degradation of 2,4-DCP. A detailed reaction pathway for 2,4-dichlorophenol degradation over the amount-optimized ZnO/BFO composite is proposed mainly based on the LC/MS product ions. This work will provide a feasible route to design and develop BFO-based highly efficient visible light-active photocatalysts for environmental purification and could be extended to other visible light-active semiconductor materials.

Photodegradation of amitriptyline in Fe(III)-citrate-oxalate binary system: Synergistic effect and mechanism

Fe(III) and carboxylic acids are ubiquitous in surface water and atmospheric water droplets. Numerous documents have reported the photochemistry of Fe(III)-carboxylate complexes, typically including Fe(III)-oxalate and Fe(III)-citrate. Our previous study preliminarily showed that oxalate enhances the photoreactivity of Fe(III)-citrate system. Here, we further investigate the synergistic effect of Fe(III)-citrate-oxalate binary system at different conditions with pharmaceutical amitriptyline (AMT) as the model pollutant. In the Fe(III)-oxalate system, the photodegradation of AMT decreased with increasing pH from 3.0 to 8.0. In the Fe(III)-citrate system, the optimal pH for AMT degradation is around 5.0 in the same pH range. For the Fe(III)-citrate-oxalate system, the photodegradation of AMT decreased with increasing pH, indicating the combined effect of both oxalate and citrate on the photoreactivity. The addition of oxalate to the Fe(III)-citrate system markedly accelerated the photodegradation of AMT. The Fe(III)-carboxylate binary system exhibited excellent photoreactivity and up to 90% AMT was removed after 30 min at pH 6.0 with Fe(III)/citrate/oxalate ratio of 10:150:500 (μM). Synergistic effect was observed in Fe(III)-citrate-oxalate binary system in the pH range of 5.0-8.0. The presence of oxalate promoted the depletion of citrate in the Fe(III)-citrate system. The higher concentration ratios of oxalate to citrate facilitated the synergistic effect in the Fe(III)-citrate-oxalate system. By LC-MS analyses, a possible pathway of AMT degradation was proposed based on hydroxyl radicals (OH) mechanism. This finding could be helpful for the better understanding of synergistic mechanism of Fe(III)-citrate-oxalate binary complexes, which will be of great potential application in environmental photocatalysis at near neutral pH.

Impact of tryptophan on the formation of TCNM in the process of UV/chlorine disinfection

Low-pressure (LP) UV treatment after chlorine disinfection was associated with enhanced formation of trichloronitromethane (TCNM), a halonitromethane disinfection by-product (DBP), due to the chlorination of tryptophan. Evidence was found that the concentration of TCNM from tryptophan increased quickly to the maximum for the first instance. Moreover, the increase of TCNM under UV exceeded 10 times than under dark. Then, it was found to have an obvious decrease in the formation of TCNM, even finally hardly disappear. In order to elucidate reasons for this phenomenon, the effects of light intensity, initial tryptophan concentration, free chlorine concentration, pH, and tert-butanol (TBA) on the formation of TCNM were investigated under UV/chlorine treatment. Finally, the effects of tryptophan on the formation of TCNM and the direct photodegradation of TCNM under LP UV irradiation were studied for analyzing the possible pathways of TCNM formation from amino acid. Since amino acids are very common in water sources, further research into chemical oxidation of these species by LP UV and chlorine is recommended. It can help us to find the precursors of TCNM formation and reduce the risk of TCNM formation for drinking water and wastewater utilities.