Risperidone mucoadhesive buccal tablets: formulation design, optimization and evaluation

Formulating biopharmaceuticals using three-dimensional printing

Additive manufacturing, commonly referred to as three-dimensional (3D) printing, has the potential to initiate a paradigm shift in the field of medicine and drug delivery. Ever since the advent of the first-ever United States Food and Drug Administration (US FDA)-approved 3D printed tablet, there has been an increased interest in the application of this technology in drug delivery and biomedical applications. 3D printing brings us one step closer to personalized medicine, hence rendering the "one size fits all" concept in drug dosing obsolete. In this review article, we focus on the recent developments in the field of modified drug delivery systems in which various types of additive manufacturing technologies are applied.

Optimizing the generation of mature bone marrow-derived dendritic cells in vitro: a factorial study design

BACKGROUND

Factorial design is a simple, yet elegant method to investigate the effect of multiple factors and their interaction on a specific response simultaneously. Hence, this type of study design reaches the best optimization conditions of a process. Although the interaction between the variables is widely prevalent in cell culture procedures, factorial design per se is infrequently utilized in improving cell culture output. Therefore, we aim to optimize the experimental conditions for generating mature bone marrow-derived dendritic cells (BMDCs). Two different variables were investigated, including the concentrations of the inducing factors and the starting density of the bone marrow mononuclear cells. In the current study, we utilized the design of experiments (DoE), a statistical approach, to systematically assess the impact of factors with varying levels on cell culture outcomes. Herein, we apply a two-factor, two-level (22) factorial experiment resulting in four conditions that are run in triplicate. The two variables investigated here are cytokines combinations with two levels, granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) alone or with interleukin-4 (IL4). The other parameter is cell density with two different concentrations, 2 × 106 and 4 × 106 cells/mL. Then, we measured cell viability using the trypan blue exclusion method, and a flow cytometer was used to detect the BMDCs expressing the markers FITC-CD80, CD86, CD83, and CD14. BMDC marker expression levels were calculated using arbitrary units (AU) of the mean fluorescence intensity (MFI).

RESULTS

The current study showed that the highest total viable cells and cells yield obtained were in cell group seeded at 2 × 106 cells/mL and treated with GM-CSF and IL-4. Importantly, the expression of the co-stimulatory molecules CD83 and CD80/CD86 were statistically significant for cell density of 2 × 106 cells/mL (P < 0.01, two-way ANOVA). Bone marrow mononuclear cells seeded at 4 × 106 in the presence of the cytokine mix less efficiently differentiated and matured into BMDCs. Statistical analysis via two-way ANOVA revealed an interaction between cell density and cytokine combinations.

CONCLUSION

The analysis of this study indicates a substantial interaction between cytokines combinations and cell densities on BMDC maturation. However, higher cell density is not associated with optimizing DC maturation. Notably, applying DoE in bioprocess designs increases experimental efficacy and reliability while minimizing experiments, time, and process costs.

Mucoadhesive buccal tablet of leuprolide and its fatty acid conjugate: Design, in vitro evaluation and formulation strategies

This study aimed to design mucoadhesive buccal tablets of leuprolide (LEU) and to manufacture and evaluate the properties of buccal tablets containing LEU-oleic acid conjugate (LOC) and self-assembled LEU-oleic acid nanoparticles (LON), which were developed in a previous study. Hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC 4000) was used as the mucoadhesive polymer, and tablets were prepared by direct compression. The formulations were characterized by weight, content uniformity, thickness, hardness, swelling index, disintegration time, mucoadhesion time, and drug release. The chosen formulation maintained an adhesion time of up to 6.43 h and a disintegration time of 4.10 h. Drug stability in the mucoadhesive tablets was confirmed after 2 h of storage in human mimic saliva (Phosphate buffer solution pH 6.8). Furthermore, the designed LEU formulation and the LOC and LON developed in a previous study were prepared as buccal tablets and compared. In the dissolution and permeation studies, LON-loaded buccal tablets showed the highest permeation rate. This study suggests that buccal tablets containing self-assembled LON can effectively increase the medication compliance of vulnerable patients (children and the elderly) by improving the bioavailability and permeation rate of LEU.

Targeted delivery of fenamates with aminated starch

Aim: To develop controlled-release tablets based on aminated starch. Materials & methods: Aminated starch was characterized with Fourier transform infrared and x-ray diffraction. Thermogravimetric analysis confirmed the preferential oxidation of crystalline region of starch. Results: The tablets achieved an initial fast release of fenamates, which slows down after 12 h. Drug release was not completed in the simulated intestinal media, which may be due to the stability of imine bond in aminated starch at weakly acidic pH. Drug release was completed in simulated acidic media due to the hydrolysis of imine functionality at strongly acidic pH. Conclusion: Aminated starch with an imine functionality may serve as intestine targeted, controlled drug-delivery system. Mucoadhesive potential of tablets further supports this observation.

Polymeric Biomaterials for Topical Drug Delivery in the Oral Cavity: Advances on Devices and Manufacturing Technologies

There are several routes of drug administration, and each one has advantages and limitations. In the case of the topical application in the oral cavity, comprising the buccal, sublingual, palatal, and gingival regions, the advantage is that it is painless, non-invasive, allows easy application of the formulation, and it is capable of avoiding the need of drug swallowing by the patient, a matter of relevance for children and the elderly. Another advantage is the high permeability of the oral mucosa, which may deliver very high amounts of medication rapidly to the bloodstream without significant damage to the stomach. This route also allows the local treatment of lesions that affect the oral cavity, as an alternative to systemic approaches involving injection-based methods and oral medications that require drug swallowing. Thus, this drug delivery route has been arousing great interest in the pharmaceutical industry. This review aims to condense information on the types of biomaterials and polymers used for this functionality, as well as on production methods and market perspectives of this topical drug delivery route.

Assessment of Binary Agarose-Carbopol Buccal Gels for Mucoadhesive Drug Delivery: Ex Vivo and In Vivo Characterization

Agarose (AG) is a naturally occurring biocompatible marine seaweed extract that is converted to hydrocolloid gel in hot water with notable gel strength. Currently, its mucoadhesion properties have not been fully explored. Therefore, the main aim of this study was to evaluate the mucoadhesive potential of AG binary dispersions in combination with Carbopol 934P (CP) as mucoadhesive gel preparations. The gels fabricated via homogenization were evaluated for ex vivo mucoadhesion, swelling index (SI), dissolution and stability studies. The mucoadhesive properties of AG were concentration dependent and it was improved by the addition of CP. Maximum mucoadhesive strength (MS) (27.03 g), mucoadhesive flow time (FT) (192.2 min), mucoadhesive time in volunteers (MT) (203.2 min) and SI (23.6% at 4 h) were observed with formulation F9. The mucoadhesive time investigated in volunteers (MT) was influenced by AG concentration and was greater than corresponding FT values. Formulations containing 0.3%, w/v AG (F3 and F9) were able to sustain the release (~99%) for both drugs till 3 h. The optimized formulation (F9) did not evoke any inflammation, irritation or pain in the buccal cavity of healthy volunteers and was also stable up to 6 months. Therefore, AG could be considered a natural and potential polymer with profound mucoadhesive properties to deliver drugs through the mucosal route.

Design, characterization and in vivo performance of solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs)-loaded mucoadhesive buccal tablets for efficient delivery of Lornoxicam in experimental inflammation

Lornoxicam (LRX) is a potent nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) used extensively to manage pain and inflammatory conditions. However, the drug possesses poor aqueous solubility (i.e., BCS class II) and a short half-life (3-4 h). Mucoadhesive buccal tablets containing LRX -loaded solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) were developed to enhance the drug solubility and bioavailability and achieve a controlled release pattern for a better anti-inflammatory effect. Different LRX-loaded SLNs were prepared using the hot homogenization /ultra-sonication technique and evaluated using size analysis and entrapment efficiency (EE%). Optimized LRX -loaded SLNs formulation showed particle size of 216 ± 7.4 nm, zeta potential of -27.3 ± 4.6 mV, and entrapment efficiency of 92.56 ± 2.3 %. Dried LRX-loaded SLNs alongside mucoadhesive polymers blend (PVP K30 /HPMC K15) were compressed to prepare the mucoadhesive buccal tablets. The tablets showed proper physicochemical properties, good mucoadhesive strength, long mucoadhesive time, suitable pH surface, good swelling capacity, and controlled drug release profile. Furthermore, Fourier transform-infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, Powder X-Ray diffraction (PXRD), and Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) studies were carried out. The in vivo anti-inflammatory effect of pure LRX, market LRX and optimized mucoadhesive buccal tablet of LRX -loaded SLNs (T3) against carrageenan-induced models were evaluated. T3 showed a significant and early anti-inflammatory response after 1 and 2 h (63.62-77.84 % inhibition) as well as an extended effect after 4 h as compared to pure and market LRX. In parallel, T3 showed the best amelioration of PGE2, COX2, and TNF-α serum levels after 4 h of carrageenan injection.

Exorbitant Drug Loading of Metformin and Sitagliptin in Mucoadhesive Buccal Tablet: In Vitro and In Vivo Characterization in Healthy Volunteers

The aim of the proposed study is to develop a mucoadhesive buccal delivery system for the sustained delivery of metformin (MET) and sitagliptin (SIT) against diabetes mellitus (DM) with improved bioavailability. Polymeric blend of Carbopol® 940 (CP), agarose (AG) or polyvinylpyrrolidone K30 (PVP) as mucoadhesive agents in formulations (R1-R15) were compressed via the direct compression technique. Tablets were characterized for solid state studies, physicochemical and in vivo mucoadhesion studies in healthy volunteers. Outcomes did not reveal any unusual peak or interaction between the drugs and polymers in the physical mixture through Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) and DSC analysis. The mucoadhesive blend of CP and PVP was superior compared to other blends. The formulation R4 revealed exorbitant loading of drugs with complete drug release for 6 h with ex vivo mucoadhesive strength and time of 26.99 g and 8.1 h, respectively. It was further scrutinized to evaluate it as an optimized formulation where it was found to be stable for up to 6 months. The formulation R4 depicted Korsmeyer-Peppas model and first-order mode of release correspondingly for SIT and MET. Moreover, it showed hemocompatibility, biocompatibility and stability with non-significant changes in the dissolution profile. Overall, the CP blend with PVP was found appropriate to yield the desired release coupled with the optimized mucoadhesive properties of the buccal tablets, ensuring sufficient pharmaceutical stability.

A review of emerging technologies enabling improved solid oral dosage form manufacturing and processing

Tablets are the most widely utilized solid oral dosage forms because of the advantages of self-administration, stability, ease of handling, transportation, and good patient compliance. Over time, extensive advances have been made in tableting technology. This review aims to provide an insight about the advances in tablet excipients, manufacturing, analytical techniques and deployment of Quality by Design (QbD). Various excipients offering novel functionalities such as solubility enhancement, super-disintegration, taste masking and drug release modifications have been developed. Furthermore, co-processed multifunctional ready-to-use excipients, particularly for tablet dosage forms, have benefitted manufacturing with shorter processing times. Advances in granulation methods, including moist, thermal adhesion, steam, melt, freeze, foam, reverse wet and pneumatic dry granulation, have been proposed to improve product and process performance. Furthermore, methods for particle engineering including hot melt extrusion, extrusion-spheronization, injection molding, spray drying / congealing, co-precipitation and nanotechnology-based approaches have been employed to produce robust tablet formulations. A wide range of tableting technologies including rapidly disintegrating, matrix, tablet-in-tablet, tablet-in-capsule, multilayer tablets and multiparticulate systems have been developed to achieve customized formulation performance. In addition to conventional invasive characterization methods, novel techniques based on laser, tomography, fluorescence, spectroscopy and acoustic approaches have been developed to assess the physical-mechanical attributes of tablet formulations in a non- or minimally invasive manner. Conventional UV-Visible spectroscopy method has been improved (e.g. fiber-optic probes and UV imaging-based approaches) to efficiently record the dissolution profile of tablet formulations. Numerous modifications in tableting presses have also been made to aid machine product changeover, cleaning, and enhance efficiency and productivity. Various process analytical technologies have been employed to track the formulation properties and critical process parameters. These advances will contribute to a strategy for robust tablet dosage forms with excellent performance attributes.

Development and optimization of tibezonium iodide and lignocaine hydrochloride containing novel mucoadhesive buccal tablets: A pharmacokinetic investigation among healthy humans

OBJECTIVE

It is clinically important to deliver sustained-release mucoadhesive dosage of local anesthetic and antimicrobial agent for pain control. The current study aimed to develop and evaluate chitosan (CHI) based buccal mucoadhesive delivery for local release of tibezonium iodide (TBN) and lignocaine hydrochloride (LGN).

METHODS

Direct compression technique was employed, aided by other mucoadhesive polymers like hydroxypropylmethylcellulose (HPMC) and sodium alginate (SA) and evaluated for physicochemical and in vivo character.

RESULTS

Fourier transform infrared spectral analysis (FTIR), powdered X-ray diffraction (XRPD), and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) absence of physical interaction between ingredients. The physical parameters complied with USP specifications for all formulations. Optimum swellability (551.9%) was offered from formulation TL15, containing 30% SA. Highest ex vivo mucoadhesive strength (24.79 g) and time (18.39 h) was found with TL8. Formulation TL8 also exhibited maximum in vivo residence time (11.37 h). Almost complete drug release at 6 h was possessed by formulation TL5 (HPMC and CHI, 20% each) for TBN (99.98%) and LGN (99.06%). The optimized formulation TL5 exhibited dosage stability up to 6 months at 75% relative humidity and retained drug contents. TL5 was well tolerated by the volunteers with no inflammation, pain or irritation found. Almost 73% of volunteers reported an increase in salivary secretion. The first-order salivary C_max of TBN and LGN were found as 16.02 and 7.80 µg/mL within 4 h, respectively.

CONCLUSION

Therefore, the sustained release mucoadhesive dosage form of TBN and LGN can be an effective and alternative option to conventional delivery.

Formulation and evaluation of mucoadhesive buccal tablets of aceclofenac

This project was aimed to formulate and characterize mucoadhesive buccal tablets of aceclofenac, utilizing different proportions of three polymers carbopol 934, hydroxypropyl methylcellulose, and sodium carboxymethylcellulose. Twelve batches of buccoadhesive aceclofenac were prepared by the direct compression method. The compressed tablets were then evaluated for physicochemical parameters such as hardness, thickness, weight variation, drug content, friability, swelling index, surface pH, and ex vivo mucoadhesion. In vitro dissolution test was conducted for 12 h according to Indian Pharmacopeia 2018, using the rotating paddle method in phosphate buffer of pH 7.4. Physiochemical parameters like weight variation (231.25–268.75 mg), hardness (8.32–11.56 kg), friability (0.04–0.2%), diameter (9.00 mm), thickness (3.8–4.05 mm), and drug content ((97.67–102.25%) were within the acceptable limit as per Indian Pharmacopeia 2018. The swelling index was reported to be in the range of 112.93–450.19%, at 8 h. The surface pHs of all the batches were in between 6.72 to 6.96. The mucoadhesive strengths (40.5–50 g) varied with the change in polymer concentrations especially of carbopol 934. The dissolution profile of all the batches varied greatly, with a maximum release of 109.41% (in batch 12 at 6 h) to a minimum release of 44.82% (in batch 3 at 12 h). Among them, only batch 1 ensured sustained and effective drug release (88.34% at 12 h) with appropriate swelling index (112.93%) and mucoadhesive strength (40 g). Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy analysis showed no evidence of drug excipients interaction. Hence, the results concluded that buccal mucoadhesive aceclofenac tablets can be formulated. Furthermore, the property of the tablet not only depends on the concentration but also the behavior of the polymers used.

Fabrication and In-vitro Evaluation of Buccal Mucoadhesive Tablet of Meloxicam

In this study, buccal mucoadhesive tablets of meloxicam were formulated for drug delivery as an alternative route. Direct compression method was applied for the preparation of tablets. Also, different polymers, including hydroxypropyl methyl cellulose (HPMC) 1000, 4000, and 10000, as well as carbopol 934p and carbopol 971p were used as the mucoadhesive polymer and retardant polymer. Thirteen formulations were investigated with various concentrations of polymers. The physicochemical characteristics, in-vitro drug release, swelling index, and taste modification of tablets were evaluated. Also, Carr’s index and Hausner ratio were studied. In addition, zero-order, first-order, and Higuchi kinetics were investigated and the results showed that the highest correlation coefficient (R²) is related to zero-order kinetic for formulations B₂ and B₃. Furthermore, the highest R² is related to Higuchi kinetic for formulation C₃. Formulation B₂ showed the maximum release of 99% in 12 h. The results demonstrated that Formulation B₂ can be considered as a proper buccal mucoadhesive tablet of meloxicam with desired property.

Oromucosal precursors of in loco hydrogels for wound-dressing and drug delivery in oral mucositis: Retain, resist, and release

Oromucosal films and tablets were developed as multifunctional biomaterials for the treatment of oral mucositis. These are intended to function as a hybrid, performing as a controlled drug delivery system and as a wound-dressing device. The dosage forms are precursors for in loco hydrogels that are activated by the saliva. An anti-inflammatory and anesthetic activity is attained from budesonide tripartite polymeric nanoparticles and lidocaine, while the polymeric network allows the protection and cicatrization of the wound. Different biomaterials and blends were investigated, focusing on the capacity to retain and resist on-site, as well as achieve a long-lasting controlled release. As the limiting factor, the choice was made according to the films' results. A polymer mix of Methocel™ K100M and Carbopol® (974P, EDT 2020, or Ultrez 10) blends were used. Overall, regrading critical factors, Carbopol® increased films' elasticity and flexibility, mucoadhesion, and the strength of the hydrogels, while higher concentrations led to thicker, more opaque, and lower strain resistance products. Whereas 974P and Ultrez 10 performed similarly, EDT 2020 led to uniformity problems and weaker films, hydrogels and bioadhesion. The optimized products were enhanced with sodium hyaluronate and drug-loaded for further characterization. Concerning the dosage form, the films' hydrogels were more resilient, while the tablets had higher mucoadhesiveness and longer swelling. Although through different networks and mechanisms, both dosage forms and grades revealed similar release profiles. A Case II time-evolving stereoselectivity for the 22R and 22S budesonide epimers was found, and Fickian-diffusion for lidocaine. Ultimately, the developed formulations show great potential to be used in OM management. Both of the selected grades at 0.6% displayed excellent performance, while Ultrez 10 can be preferable for the films' production due to its lower viscosity before neutralization and higher after activation. Where the tablets are easier to produce and offer better adhesion, the films are more customizable post-production and have higher rheological performance for wound-dressing.

Nano Carrier Drug Delivery Systems for the Treatment of Neuropsychiatric Disorders: Advantages and Limitations

Neuropsychiatric diseases are one of the main causes of disability, affecting millions of people. Various drugs are used for its treatment, although no effective therapy has been found yet. The blood brain barrier (BBB) significantly complicates drugs delivery to the target cells in the brain tissues. One of the problem-solving methods is the usage of nanocontainer systems. In this review we summarized the data about nanoparticles drug delivery systems and their application for the treatment of neuropsychiatric disorders. Firstly, we described and characterized types of nanocarriers: inorganic nanoparticles, polymeric and lipid nanocarriers, their advantages and disadvantages. We discussed ways to interact with nerve tissue and methods of BBB penetration. We provided a summary of nanotechnology-based pharmacotherapy of schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, depression, anxiety disorder and Alzheimer's disease, where development of nanocontainer drugs derives the most active. We described various experimental drugs for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease that include vector nanocontainers targeted on β-amyloid or tau-protein. Integrally, nanoparticles can substantially improve the drug delivery as its implication can increase BBB permeability, the pharmacodynamics and bioavailability of applied drugs. Thus, nanotechnology is anticipated to overcome the limitations of existing pharmacotherapy of psychiatric disorders and to effectively combine various treatment modalities in that direction.

Impact of cyclodextrin derivatives on systemic release of duloxetine HCl via buccal route

Aim: The aim of this work was to develop buccoadhesive tablets for the systemic delivery of duloxetine HCl (DXT) using more soluble derivatives of β-cyclodextrin, i.e. hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin (HPβCD) and sulfobutylether-β-cyclodextrin (SBEβCD) and to investigate enhanced cellular uptake of inclusion complexed drug.Materials and methods: Freeze dried and spray dried complexes of both cyclodextrin derivatives with DXT (1:1 molar) were prepared and characterized with DSC, FTIR, and PXRD techniques. C971 and PC, on the basis of swelling behavior, erosion and in vitro residence time, were selected for further study at different levels (-1, 0, +1) to optimize the formulation in terms of enhanced drug release and ex vivo permeation.Results: SBEβCD based complexes show more aqueous solubility of DXT (0.782 and 0.958 mM) and more complexation efficiency compared to HPβCD at 25 °C and 37 °C, respectively. Apparent stability constant was reported to be higher (1109.94 and 1693.25 M^-1) for DXT-SBEβCD at 25 °C and 37 °C, respectively, than the corresponding values for DXT-HPβCD systems. Enhanced cellular uptake using fibroblast cells was revealed for complexed drug compared to free drug .Conclusion: Both cyclodextrin derivatives are able to enhance drug release and permeation in vitro and ex vivo.

Biopolymer Substrates in Buccal Drug Delivery: Current Status and Future Trend

BACKGROUND

This paper provides a critical review of biopolymer-based substrates, especially the cellulose derivatives, for their application in buccal drug delivery. Drug delivery to the buccal mucous has the benefits of immobile muscle, abundant vascularization and rapid recovery, but not all the drugs can be administered through the buccal mucosa (e.g., macromolecular drugs), due to the low bioavailability caused by their large molecular size. This shortfall inspired the rapid development of drug-compounding technologies and the corresponding usage of biopolymer substrates.

METHODS

Cellulose derivatives have been extensively developed for drug manufacturing to facilitate its delivery. We engaged in structured research of cellulose-based drug compounding technologies. We summarized the characteristic cellulose derivatives which have been used as the biocompatible substrates in buccal delivery systems. The discussion of potential use of the rapidly-developed nanocellulose (NC) is also notable in this paper.

RESULTS

Seventy-eight papers were referenced in this perspective paper with the majority (sixty-five) published later than 2010. Forty-seven papers defined the buccal drug delivery systems and their substrates. Fifteen papers outlined the properties and applications of cellulose derivatives. Nanocellulose was introduced as a leading edge of nanomaterial with sixteen papers highlighted its adaptability in drug compounding for buccal delivery.

CONCLUSION

The findings of this perspective paper proposed the potential use of cellulose derivatives, the typical kind of biopolymers, in the buccal drug delivery system for promoting the bioavailability of macromolecular drugs. Nanocellulose (NC) in particular was proposed as an innovative bio-binder/carrier for the controlled-release of drugs in buccal system.

Chronological Delivery of Antihypertensive Drugs in Bilayered Core-in-Cup Buccoadhesive Tablets: In Vitro and In Vivo Evaluation

Hypertension shows circadian blood pressure rhythms (day-night pattern) that urge the delivery of antihypertensive drugs at the right time in the desired levels. Thus, a bilayered core-in-cup buccoadhesive tablet was formulated that immediately releases olmesartan, to give a burst effect, and controls azelnidipine release, to prolong its therapeutic effect. The main challenge was the poor bioavailability of azelnidipine due to its poor aqueous solubility and first-pass effect. Hence, liquisolid compact buccoadhesive tablets were prepared to enhance solubility, dissolution profiles, and bypass the oral route. Two factorial designs were conducted to study the type and concentration effect of the mucoadhesive polymers on the dissolution and mucoadhesion of olmesartan and azelnidipine. Characterization studies were conducted regarding drug content, surface pH, water uptake, mucoadhesive strength, in vitro release, and ex vivo permeability. The core-in-cup olmesartan/azelnidipine buccoadhesive tablet showed similar release profile to the statistically optimized formulae of each drug. In vitro dissolution study showed enhanced release of azelnidipine than the directly compressed tablets, to comply with the regulatory standards of controlled release systems. In vivo pharmacokinetic study of olmesartan and azelnidipine conducted on human volunteers against Rezaltas® 10/8 mg tablet showed percentage relative bioavailability of 106.12 and 470.82%, respectively. Graphical Abstract.

Alginate Oligosaccharides Affect Mechanical Properties and Antifungal Activity of Alginate Buccal Films with Posaconazole

Sodium alginate and its oligosaccharides through potential antifungal properties might improve the activity of antifungal drugs enhancing their efficacy and potentially reducing the frequency of application. Mucoadhesive buccal films are oral dosage forms designed for maintaining both local or systemic drug effects and seem to be a very promising alternative to conventional oral formulations. Hence, in this study, mucoadhesive buccal films based on the alginate and its oligosaccharide oligomer composed predominantly of mannuronic acid for the administration of posaconazole-antifungal drug from the azole group were developed. As the polymer gelation method, a relatively new freeze-thaw technique was chosen. All prepared formulations were examined for pharmaceutical tests, swelling, mechanical, and mucoadhesive properties. In addition, the influence of sodium alginate (ALG) and alginate oligosaccharides (OLG) on POS antifungal activity on Candida species was performed. It was observed that film formulation containing 1% ALG and 1% OLG (F2) was characterized by optimal mucoadhesive and swelling properties and prolonged drug release up to 5 h. Additionally, it was shown that OLG affected the growth reduction of all tested Candida spp. The obtained data has opened the way for future research for developing OLG-based dosage forms, which might increase the activity of antifungal drugs.

Advances in Nanoparticulate Drug Delivery Approaches for Sublingual and Buccal Administration

The sublingual and buccal routes of administration have significant advantages for both local and systemic drug delivery. They have shown to be an effective alternative to the traditional oral route, especially when fast onset of action is required. Drugs can be rapidly and directly absorbed into the systemic circulation via venous drainage to the superior vena cava. Therefore, they are useful for drugs that undergo high hepatic clearance or degradation in the gastrointestinal tract, and for patients that have swallowing difficulties. Drugs administered via the sublingual and buccal routes are traditionally formulated as solid dosage forms (e.g., tablets, wafers, films, and patches), liquid dosage forms (e.g., sprays and drops), and semi-solid dosage forms (e.g., gels). Conventional dosage forms are commonly affected by physiological factors, which can reduce the contact of the formulation with the mucosa and lead to unpredictable drug absorption. There have been a number of advances in formulation development to improve the retention and absorption of drugs in the buccal and sublingual regions. This review will focus on the physiological aspects that influence buccal and sublingual drug delivery and the advances in nanoparticulate drug delivery approaches for sublingual and buccal administration. The clinical development pipeline with formulations approved and in clinical trials will also be addressed.