Doxorubicin/Cisplatin-Loaded Superparamagnetic Nanoparticles As A Stimuli-Responsive Co-Delivery System For Chemo-Photothermal Therapy

Better together: nanoscale co-delivery systems of therapeutic agents for high-performance cancer therapy

Combination therapies can enhance the sensitivity of cancer to drugs, lower drug doses, and reduce side effects in cancer treatment. However, differences in the physicochemical properties and pharmacokinetics of different therapeutic agents limit their application. To avoid the above dilemma and achieve accurate control of the synergetic ratio, a nanoscale co-delivery system (NCDS) has emerged as a prospective tool for combined therapy in cancer treatment, which is increasingly being used to co-load different therapeutic agents. In this study, we have summarized the mechanisms of therapeutic agents in combination for cancer therapy, nanoscale carriers for co-delivery, drug-loading strategies, and controlled/targeted co-delivery systems, aiming to give a general picture of these powerful approaches for future NCDS research studies.

Bioanalytical strategies to evaluate cisplatin nanodelivery systems: From synthesis to incorporation in individual cells and biological response

Cisplatin metallodrugs have been widely used in the treatment of multiple cancers over the last years. Nevertheless, its limited effectiveness, development of acquired drug resistances, and toxic effects decrease nowadays their application in clinical settings. Aiming at improving their features, investigations have been oriented towards the coupling of cisplatin to nanocarriers, like liposomes or inorganic nanoparticles. Moreover, these systems can be further developed to allow targeted co-delivery of drugs. In this review, we describe the major nanosystems and the optimal analytical strategies for their assessment. Finally, we describe the main biological effects of these metallodrug conjugates and the available approaches for their study.

Dual nanocarrier of chlorhexidine and fluconazole: Physicochemical characterization and effects on microcosm biofilms and oral keratinocytes

OBJECTIVES

This study assembled and characterized a dual nanocarrier of chlorhexidine (CHX) and fluconazole (FLZ), and evaluated its antibiofilm and cytotoxic effects.

METHODS

CHX and FLZ were added to iron oxide nanoparticles (IONPs) previously coated by chitosan (CS) and characterized by physical-chemical analyses. Biofilms from human saliva supplemented with Candida species were grown (72 h) on glass discs and treated (24 h) with IONPs-CS carrying CHX (at 39, 78, or 156 µg/mL) and FLZ (at 156, 312, or 624 µg/mL) in three growing associations. IONPs and CS alone, and 156 µg/mL CHX + 624 µg/mL FLZ (CHX156-FLZ624) were tested as controls. Next, microbiological analyses were performed. The viability of human oral keratinocytes (NOKsi lineage) was also determined (MTT reduction assay). Data were submitted to ANOVA or Kruskal-Wallis, followed by Fisher's LSD or Tukey's tests (α=0.05).

RESULTS

Nanocarriers with spherical-like shape and diameter around 6 nm were assembled, without compromising the crystalline property and stability of IONPs. Nanocarrier at the highest concentrations was the most effective in reducing colony-forming units of Streptococcus mutans, Lactobacillus spp., Candida albicans, and Candida glabrata. The other carriers and CHX156-FLZ624 showed similar antibiofilm effects, and significantly reduced lactic acid production (p<0.001). Also, a dose-dependent cytotoxic effect against oral keratinocytes was observed for the dual nanocarrier. IONPs-CS-CHX-FLZ and CHX-FLZ significantly reduced keratinocyte viability at CHX and FLZ concentrations ≥7.8 and 31.25 µg/mL, respectively (p<0.05).

CONCLUSION

The nanotherapy developed outperformed the effect of the combination CHX-FLZ on microcosm biofilms, without increasing the cytotoxic effect of the antimicrobials administered.

CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE

The dual nanocarrier is a promising topically-applied therapy for the management of oral candidiasis considering that its higher antibiofilm effects allow the use of lower concentrations of antimicrobials than those found in commercial products.

Comparison of different methods for synthesis of iron oxide nanoparticles and investigation of their cellular properties, and antioxidant potential

Iron oxide nanoparticles could play a useful role in lung cancer therapy. Iron oxide nanoparticles (NPs) were synthesized by plant mediated synthesis, chemical, and microbial mediated synthesis. iron oxide nanoparticle polyethylene glycol cis-diamminedichloroplatinum (Fe2O3@PEG@CDDP(, iron oxide nanoparticle polyethylene glycol (Fe2O3@PEG), and cis-diamminedichloroplatinum (CDDP) were evaluated for their antioxidant,and in vitro cytotoxicity tests. X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), Field emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM), mapping, and zeta potential were used to characterize the synthesized iron oxides NPs. Cell toxicity was determined using A549 and HFF cells by 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyl-2H-tetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay. The antioxidant scavenging activity of Fe2O3@PEG@CDDP, Fe2O3@PEG, and CDDP displayed IC50 values (11.96, 26.74, and 3.17 μg/ml) and (8.54, 11.4, and 1.14 μg/ml) in 2,2'-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS) and 2,2-Diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) assays, respectively. Nanoparticles obtained from plant mediated synthesis method showed the great antioxidant activity. Results showed that, green-method synthesized nanoparticles were the most effective at killing cancer cells. Thus, the characteristics of nanoparticles from green synthesis are more valuable than the other methods. Green synthesis is environmental friendly cost-effective, and easy approach for synthesize NPs.

Designing Smart Iron Oxide Nanoparticles for MR Imaging of Tumors

Iron oxide nanoparticles (IONPs) possess unique magnetism and good biocompatibility, and they have been widely applied as contrast agents (CAs) for magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Traditional CAs typically show a fixed enhanced signal, thus exhibiting the limitations of low sensitivity and a lack of specificity. Nowadays, the progress of stimulus-responsive IONPs allows alteration of the relaxation signal in response to internal stimuli of the tumor, or external stimuli, thus providing an opportunity to overcome those limitations. This review summarizes the current status of smart IONPs as tumor imaging MRI CAs that exhibit responsiveness to endogenous stimuli, such as pH, hypoxia, glutathione, and enzymes, or exogenous stimuli, such as magnets, light, and so on. We discuss the challenges and future opportunities for IONPs as MRI CAs and comprehensively illustrate the applications of these stimuli-responsive IONPs. This review will help provide guidance for designing IONPs as MRI CAs and further promote the reasonable design of magnetic nanoparticles and achieve early and accurate tumor detection.

Recent Advances in Nanoparticle-Mediated Co-Delivery System: A Promising Strategy in Medical and Agricultural Field

Drug and gene delivery systems mediated by nanoparticles have been widely studied for life science in the past decade. The application of nano-delivery systems can dramatically improve the stability and delivery efficiency of carried ingredients, overcoming the defects of administration routes in cancer therapy, and possibly maintaining the sustainability of agricultural systems. However, delivery of a drug or gene alone sometimes cannot achieve a satisfactory effect. The nanoparticle-mediated co-delivery system can load multiple drugs and genes simultaneously, and improve the effectiveness of each component, thus amplifying efficacy and exhibiting synergistic effects in cancer therapy and pest management. The co-delivery system has been widely reported in the medical field, and studies on its application in the agricultural field have recently begun to emerge. In this progress report, we summarize recent progress in the preparation and application of drug and gene co-delivery systems and discuss the remaining challenges and future perspectives in the design and fabrication.

Hollow Nanomaterials in Advanced Drug Delivery Systems: From Single- to Multiple Shells

Hollow-structured nanomaterials (HSNMs) have attracted increased interest in biomedical fields, owing to their excellent potential as drug delivery systems (DDSs) for clinical applications. Among HSNMs, hollow multi-shelled structures (HoMSs) exhibit properties such as high loading capacity, sequential drug release, and multi-functionalized modification and represent a new class of nanoplatforms for clinical applications. The remarkable properties of HoMS-based DDS can simultaneously satisfy and enhance DDSs for delivering small molecular drugs (e.g., antibiotics, chemotherapy drugs, and imaging agents) and macromolecular drugs (e.g., protein/peptide- and nucleic acid-based drugs). First, the latest research advances in delivering small molecular drugs are summarized and highlight the inherent advantages of HoMS-based DDSs for small molecular drug targeting, combining continuous therapeutic drug delivery and theranostics to optimize the clinical benefit. Meanwhile, the macromolecular drugs DDSs are in the initial development stage and currently offer limited delivery modes. There is a growing need to analyze the deficiency of other HSNMs and integrate the advantages of HSNMs, providing solutions for the safe, stable, and cascade delivery of macromolecular drugs to meet vast treatment requirements. Therefore, the latest advances in HoMS-based DDSs are comprehensively reviewed, mainly focusing on the characteristics, research progress by drug category, and future research prospects.

Chemo-radiation therapy of U87-MG glioblastoma cells using SPIO@AuNP-Cisplatin-Alginate nanocomplex

Megavoltage radiotherapy and cisplatin-based chemotherapy are the primary glioblastoma treatments. Novel nanoparticles have been designed to reduce adverse effects and boost therapeutic effectiveness. In the present study, we synthesized the SPIO@AuNP-Cisplatin-Alginate (SACA) nanocomplex, composed of a SPIO core, a gold shell, and an alginate coating. SACA was characterized using transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and dynamic light scattering (DLS). U87-MG human glioblastoma cells and the HGF cell line (a healthy primary gingival fibroblast) were treated in multiple groups by a combination of SACA, cisplatin, and 6 MV X-ray. The MTT assay was used to assess the cytotoxicity of cisplatin and SACA (at various concentrations and for 4 h). Following the treatments, apoptosis and cell viability were evaluated in each treatment group using flow cytometry and the MTT assay, respectively. The findings demonstrated that the combination of SACA and 6 MV X-rays (at the doses of 2 and 4 Gy) drastically decreased the viability of U87MG cells, whereas the viability of HGF cells remained unchanged. Moreover, U87MG cells treated with SACA in combination with radiation exhibited a significant increase in apoptosis, demonstrating that this nanocomplex effectively boosted the radiosensitivity of cancer cells. Even though additional in vivo studies are needed, these findings suggest that SACA might be used as a radiosensitizer nanoparticle in the therapy of brain tumors.

Cisplatin-loaded gold nanoshells mediate chemo-photothermal therapy against primary and distal lung cancers growth

Lung cancer is the most common cause of cancer mortality worldwide. The advances in surgery, radiotherapy, chemotherapeutic and immunotherapeutic drugs have progressed in the past decades, but the prognosis of lung cancer is still poor. In this study, we developed cisplatin (CDDP)-loaded human serum albumin (HSA)-based gold nanoshells (HCP@GNSs) for synergistic chemo-photothermal therapy (chemo-PTT). The HCP@GNSs not only acted as drug nanocarriers for chemotherapy but also serve as a superior mediator for PTT, which could exhibit a temperature increase upon a near infrared (NIR) laser exposure that was sufficient for photothermal ablation. HCP@GNSs were highly biocompatible and hemocompatible nanocarriers, while the synergistic chemo-PTT resulting from HCP@GNSs plus NIR exposure displayed stronger cytotoxicity effect than HCP@GNSs or PTT alone, especially at a low CDDP concentration. In vivo analysis demonstrated that HCP@GNSs-mediated chemo-PTT increased necrosis in tumors to achieve a high tumor clearance rate with no adverse side effects. Moreover, HCP@GNSs-medicated chemo-PTT induced the recruitment of dendritic cells, B-cells, and natural killer T-cells in distal tumors to inhibit the growth of the tumors. Therefore, the CDDP-loaded HCP@GNSs may be a potential nanomedicine candidate for curative lung cancer treatment in the future.

Two-dimensional-Ti3C2 magnetic nanocomposite for targeted cancer chemotherapy

Introduction: Cervical cancer is the leading cause of cancer-related death in women, so novel therapeutic approaches are needed to improve the effectiveness of current therapies or extend their activity. In recent decades, graphene analogs, such as Mxene, an emerging class of two-dimensional (2D) graphene analogs, have been drawing considerable attention based on their intrinsic physicochemical properties and performance as potential candidates for tumor therapy, particularly for therapeutic purposes. Here we explored the targeted drug delivery in cervical cancer in in vivo model. Mxene-based nanocarriers are not able to be precisely controlled in cancer treatment. Method: To solve this problem, the titanium carbide-magnetic core-shell nanocarrier (Ti₃C₂-Fe₃O₄@SiO₂-FA) is also developed to provide synergetic anticancer with magnetic controlling ability along with pH-responsive drug release. A xenograft model of the cervix was used to investigate the effects of Cisplatin alone, or in combination with Ti₃C₂@FA and Ti₃C₂@ Fe₃O₄@SiO₂-FA, on tumor growth following histological staining for evaluation of necrosis. Result and Discussion: A significant tumor-growth suppression effect is shown when the Ti₃C₂-Fe₃O₄@SiO₂-FA nanocarrier is magnetically controlled Cisplatin drug release. It reveals a synergistic therapeutic efficacy used in conjunction with pharmaceuticals (p < .001). According to the in vivo study, the Ti₃C₂@FA@Cisplatin nanocomposite exhibits less tumor growth than the drug alone or Ti₃C₂@FA@Cisplatin via increasing necrosis effect (p < .001). Through this study, Mxene nanosheets are expanded for biomedical applications, not only through the fabrication of biocompatible magnetic Mxene nanocomposite but also through the development of functionalization strategies that enable the magnetic Ti₃C₂ nanocomposite to load high levels of Cisplatin for cervical cancer treatment (242.5%). Hence, Ti₃C₂-Fe₃O₄@SiO₂-FA nanocarriers would be promising candidates to improve cancer treatment efficiency.

SPIONs Conjugate Supported Anticancer Drug Doxorubicin's Delivery: Current Status, Challenges, and Prospects

Considerable efforts have been directed towards development of nano-structured carriers to overcome the limitations of anticancer drug, doxorubicin's, delivery to various cancer sites. The drug's severe toxicity to cardio and hepatic systems, low therapeutic outcomes, inappropriate dose-demands, metastatic and general resistance, together with non-selectivity of the drug have led to the development of superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPIONs)-based drug delivery modules. Nano-scale polymeric co-encapsulation of the drug, doxorubicin, with SPIONs, the SPIONs surface end-groups' cappings with small molecular entities, as well as structural modifications of the SPIONs' surface-located functional end-groups, to attach the doxorubicin, have been achieved through chemical bonding by conjugation and cross-linking of natural and synthetic polymers, attachments of SPIONs made directly to the non-polymeric entities, and attachments made through mediation of molecular-spacer as well as non-spacer mediated attachments of several types of chemical entities, together with the physico-chemical bondings of the moieties, e.g., peptides, proteins, antibodies, antigens, aptamers, glycoproteins, and enzymes, etc. to the SPIONs which are capable of targeting multiple kinds of cancerous sites, have provided stable and functional SPIONs-based nano-carriers suitable for the systemic, and in vitro deliveries, together with being suitable for other biomedical/biotechnical applications. Together with the SPIONs inherent properties, and ability to respond to magnetic resonance, fluorescence-directed, dual-module, and molecular-level tumor imaging; as well as multi-modular cancer cell targeting; magnetic-field-inducible drug-elution capacity, and the SPIONs' magnetometry-led feasibility to reach cancer action sites have made sensing, imaging, and drug and other payloads deliveries to cancerous sites for cancer treatment a viable option. Innovations in the preparation of SPIONs-based delivery modules, as biocompatible carriers; development of delivery route modalities; approaches to enhancing their drug delivery-cum-bioavailability have explicitly established the SPIONs' versatility for oncological theranostics and imaging. The current review outlines the development of various SPIONs-based nano-carriers for targeted doxorubicin delivery to different cancer sites through multiple methods, modalities, and materials, wherein high-potential nano-structured platforms have been conceptualized, developed, and tested for, both, in vivo and in vitro conditions. The current state of the knowledge in this arena have provided definite dose-control, site-specificity, stability, transport feasibility, and effective onsite drug de-loading, however, with certain limitations, and these shortcomings have opened the field for further advancements by identifying the bottlenecks, suggestive and plausible remediation, as well as more clear directions for future development.

Theranostics platform of Abemaciclib using magnetite@silica@chitosan nanocomposite

The current study was designed to synthesize a nanoformula comprising of magnetite nanoparticles (MN) with mesoporous silica (MS), which was in turn coated with chitosan (CS) and further loaded with a chemotherapeutic agent, Abemaciclib (ABE). The prepared formula, MN@MS@CS@ABE, was characterized by XRD, FTIR, HRTEM, FESEM, DLS, VSM, BET, and BJH. The ABE loading capacity and entrapment efficiency were calculated, and an in vitro drug release experiment was conducted. Cytoxicity was studied by the MTT assay. The formula was investigated as an anticancer agent versus MCF-7 cells by performing Annexin V-FITC flow cytometry and cell cycle analysis. Furthermore, we examine the formula as a contrast agent in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). ABE loading and encapsulation efficiency were 24.2 % and 63.4 %, respectively. The formula demonstrated sustained drug release behavior for 72 h. The MTT assay revealed a higher cytotoxicity of free ABE in MCF-7 cells compared to MN@MS@CS@ABE. Flow cytometry revealed early and late phases of apoptosis and necrosis with different percentages. The formula stimulated a reduction in signal intensity in the MR T2-weighted imaging technique. In conclusion, the current study developed a nanoformula which could be a promising theranostic agent in cancer therapy and diagnosis.

Functionalized SPION immobilized on graphene-oxide: Anticancer and antiviral study

The progressive and fatal outbreak of some diseases such as cancer and coronavirus necessitates using advanced materials to bring such devastating illnesses under control. In this study, graphene oxide (GO) is decorated by superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPION) (GO/SPION) as well as polyethylene glycol functionalized SPION (GO/SPION@PEG), and chitosan functionalized SPION (GO/SPION@CS). Field emission scanning electron microscopic (FESEM) images show the formation of high density uniformly distributed SPION nanoparticles on the surface of GO sheets. The structural and chemical composition of nanostructures is confirmed by X-ray diffraction and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. The saturation magnetization of GO/SPION, GO/SPION@PEG and GO- SPION@CS are found to be 20, 19 and 8 emu/g using vibrating sample magnetometer. Specific absorption rate (SAR) values of 305, 283, and 199 W/g and corresponding intrinsic loss power (ILP) values of 9.4, 8.7, and 6.2 nHm²kg^-1 are achieved for GO/SPION, GO/SPION@PEG and GO/SPION@CS, respectively. The In vitro cytotoxicity assay indicates higher than 70% cell viability for all nanostructures at 100, 300, and 500 ppm after 24 and 72 h. Additionally, cancerous cell (EJ138 human bladder carcinoma) ablation is observed using functionalized GO/SPION under applied magnetic field. More than 50% cancerous cell death has been achieved for GO/SPION@PEG at 300 ppm concentration. Furthermore, Surrogate virus neutralization test is applied to investigate neutralizing property of the synthesized nanostructures through analysis of SARS-CoV-2 receptor-binding domain and human angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 binding. The highest level of SARS-CoV-2 virus inhibition is related to GO/SPION@CS (86%) due to the synergistic exploitation of GO and chitosan. Thus, GO/SPION and GO/SPION@PEG with higher SAR and ILP values could be beneficial for cancer treatment, while GO/SPION@CS with higher virus suppression has potential to use against coronaviruses. Thus, the developed nanocomposites have a potential in the efficient treatment of cancer and coronavirus.

Recent advances in nanoparticle-based photothermal therapy for breast cancer

Breast cancer is one of the most common cancers among women that is associated with high mortality. Conventional treatments including surgery, radiotherapy, and chemotherapy, which are not effective enough and have disadvantages such as toxicity and damage to healthy cells. Photothermal therapy (PTT) of cancer cells has been took great attention by researchers in recent years due to the use of light radiation and heat generation at the tumor site, which thermal ablation is considered a minimally invasive method for the treatment of breast cancer. Nanotechnology has opened up a new perspective in the treatment of breast cancer using PTT method. Through NIR light absorption, researchers applied various nanostructures because of their specific nature of penetrating and targeting tumor tissue, increasing the effectiveness of PTT, and combining it with other treatments. If PTT is used with common cancer treatments, it can dramatically increase the effectiveness of treatment and reduce the side effects of other methods. PTT performance can also be improved by hybridizing at least two different nanomaterials. Nanoparticles that intensely absorb light and increase the efficiency of converting light into heat can specifically kill tumors through hyperthermia of cancer cells. One of the main reasons that have increased the efficiency of nanoparticles in PTT is their permeability and durability effect and they can accumulate in tumor tissue. Targeted PTT can be provided by incorporating specific ligands to target receptors expressed on the surface of cancer cells on nanoparticles. These nanoparticles can specifically target cancer cells by maintaining the surface area and increasing penetration. In this study, we briefly introduce the performance of light therapy, application of metal nanoparticles, polymer nanoparticles, carbon nanoparticles, and hybrid nanoparticles for use in PTT of breast cancer.

Magnetic Solid Nanoparticles and Their Counterparts: Recent Advances towards Cancer Theranostics

Cancer is currently a leading cause of death worldwide. The World Health Organization estimates an increase of 60% in the global cancer incidence in the next two decades. The inefficiency of the currently available therapies has prompted an urgent effort to develop new strategies that enable early diagnosis and improve response to treatment. Nanomedicine formulations can improve the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of conventional therapies and result in optimized cancer treatments. In particular, theranostic formulations aim at addressing the high heterogeneity of tumors and metastases by integrating imaging properties that enable a non-invasive and quantitative assessment of tumor targeting efficiency, drug delivery, and eventually the monitoring of the response to treatment. However, in order to exploit their full potential, the promising results observed in preclinical stages need to achieve clinical translation. Despite the significant number of available functionalization strategies, targeting efficiency is currently one of the major limitations of advanced nanomedicines in the oncology area, highlighting the need for more efficient nanoformulation designs that provide them with selectivity for precise cancer types and tumoral tissue. Under this current need, this review provides an overview of the strategies currently applied in the cancer theranostics field using magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) and solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs), where both nanocarriers have recently entered the clinical trials stage. The integration of these formulations into magnetic solid lipid nanoparticles—with different composition and phenotypic activity—constitutes a new generation of theranostic nanomedicines with great potential for the selective, controlled, and safe delivery of chemotherapy.

A new combination strategy to enhance apoptosis in cancer cells by using nanoparticles as biocompatible drug delivery carriers

Some experimental and clinical studies have been conducted for the usage of chemotherapeutic drugs encapsulated into nanoparticles (NPs). However, no study has been conducted so far on the co-encapsulation of doxorubicin (Dox) and epoxomicin (Epo) into NPs as biocompatible drug delivery carriers. Therefore, we investigated if co-encapsulation of doxorubicin (Dox) and/or epoxomicin (Epo) into NPs enhance their anticancer efficiency and prevent drug resistance and toxicity to normal cells. We synthesized Dox and/or Epo loaded poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) NPs using a multiple emulsion solvent evaporation technique and characterized them in terms of their particle size and stability, surface, molecular, thermal, encapsulation efficiency and in vitro release properties. We studied the effects of drug encapsulated NPs on cellular accumulation, intracellular drug levels, oxidative stress status, cellular viability, drug resistance, 20S proteasome activity, cytosolic Nuclear Factor Kappa B (NF-κB-p65), and apoptosis in breast cancer and normal cells. Our results proved that the nanoparticles we synthesized were thermally stable possessing higher encapsulation efficiency and particle stability. Thermal, morphological and molecular analyses demonstrated the presence of Dox and/or Epo within NPs, indicating that they were successfully loaded. Cell line assays proved that Dox and Epo loaded NPs were less cytotoxic to single-layer normal HUVECs than free Dox and Epo, suggesting that the NPs would be biocompatible drug delivery carriers. The apoptotic index of free Dox and Epo increased 50% through their encapsulation into NPs, proving combination strategy to enhance apoptosis in breast cancer cells. Our results demonstrated that the co-encapsulation of Dox and Epo within NPs would be a promising treatment strategy to overcome multidrug resistance and toxicity to normal tissues that can be studied in further in vivo and clinical studies in breast cancer.

Lipid, polymeric, inorganic-based drug delivery applications for platinum-based anticancer drugs

The three main FDA-approved platinum drugs in chemotherapy such as carboplatin, cisplatin, and oxaliplatin are extensively applied in cancer treatments. Although the clinical applications of platinum-based drugs are extremely effective, their toxicity profile restricts their extensive application. Therefore, recent studies focus on developing new platinum drug formulations, expanding the therapeutic aspect. In this sense, recent advances in the development of novel drug delivery carriers will help with the increase of drug stability and biodisponibility, concomitantly with the reduction of drug efflux and undesirable secondary toxic effects of platinum compounds. The present review describes the state of the art of platinum drugs with their biological effects, pre- and clinical studies, and novel drug delivery nanodevices based on lipids, polymers, and inorganic.

A multiple environment-sensitive prodrug nanomicelle strategy based on chitosan graftomer for enhanced tumor therapy of gambogic acid

A novel multiple environment-sensitive polymeric prodrug of gambogic acid (GA) based on chitosan graftomer was fabricated for cancer treatment. Folic acid-chitosan conjugates was complexed with thermosensitive amine terminated poly-N-isopropylacrylamide (NH₂-PNIPAM) to develop FA-CSPN. Gambogic acid was conjugated with the graftomer via esterification to achieve high drug-loading capacity and controlled drug release. The resulting amphiphilic prodrug, O-(gambogic acid)-N-(folic acid)-N'-(NH₂-PNIPAM) chitosan graftomer (GFCP), could self-assemble into micelles. As expected, the micelles were stable and biocompatible, featuring pH-, esterase- and temperature-dependent manner of drug release. Moreover, the anticancer effect studies of GFCP micelles were performed using a tumor-bearing mouse model and cellular assays (tumor cell uptake assay, cytotoxicity and tumor-sphere penetration). Collectively, GFCP micelles show both potential in vivo and in vitro in improving the anticancer effectiveness of GA owing to high loading capacity, targeted tumor accumulation, and multiple tumor microenvironmental responsiveness.

Multifunctional nanoplatforms co-delivering combinatorial dual-drug for eliminating cancer multidrug resistance

Clinically, the primary cause of chemotherapy failure belongs to the occurrence of cancer multidrug resistance (MDR), which directly leads to the recurrence and metastasis of cancer along with high mortality. More and more attention has been paid to multifunctional nanoplatform-based dual-therapeutic combination to eliminate resistant cancers. In addition to helping both cargoes improve hydrophobicity and pharmacokinetic properties, increase bioavailability, release on demand and enhance therapeutic efficacy with low toxic effects, these smart co-delivery nanocarriers can even overcome drug resistance. Here, this review will not only present different types of co-delivery nanocarriers, but also summarize targeted and stimuli-responsive combination nanomedicines. Furthermore, we will focus on the recent progress in the co-delivery of dual-drug using such intelligent nanocarriers for surmounting cancer MDR. Whereas it remains to be seriously considered that there are some knotty issues in the fight against MDR of cancers via using co-delivery nanoplatforms, including limited intratumoral retention, the possible changes of combinatorial ratio under complex biological environments, drug release sequence from the nanocarriers, and subsequent free-drug resistance after detachment from the nanocarriers. It is hoped that, with the advantage of continuously developing nanomaterials, two personalized therapeutic agents in combination can be better exploited to achieve the goal of cooperatively combating cancer MDR, thus advancing the time to clinical transformation.

Microfluidic platform for synthesis and optimization of chitosan-coated magnetic nanoparticles in cisplatin delivery

In this study, magnetic core/chitosan shell Nanoparticles (NPs) containing cisplatin were synthesized via cisplatin complexation with tripolyphosphate as the chitosan crosslinker using two different procedures: a conventional batch flow method and a microfluidic approach. An integrated microfluidic device composed of three stages was developed to provide precise and highly controllable mixing. The comparison of the results revealed that NPs synthesized in microchannels were monodisperse 104 ± 14.59 nm (n = 3) in size with optimal morphological characteristics, whereas polydisperse 423 ± 53.33 nm (n = 3) nanoparticles were obtained by the conventional method. Furthermore, cisplatin was loaded in NPs without becoming inactivated, and the microfluidic technique demonstrated higher encapsulation efficiency, controlled release, and consequently lower IC50 values during exposure to the A2780 cell line proving that microfluidic synthesized NPs were able to enter the cells and release the drug more efficiently. The developed microfluidic platform presents valuable features that could potentially provide the clinical translation of NPs in drug delivery.

Hyaluronate-Based Self-Stabilized Nanoparticles for Immunosuppression Reversion and Immunochemotherapy in Osteosarcoma Treatment

Immunotherapy is regarded as a potential strategy to combat cancer, especially when immunotherapy is combined with appropriate chemotherapy. However, the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (TME) and serious side effects extremely limit the application of immunotherapy. Herein, a self-stabilized hyaluronic acid nanoparticle is synthesized for tumor-targeted delivery of doxorubicin (DOX), cisplatin (CDDP), and resiquimod (R848) in osteosarcoma immunochemotherapy, which is referred to as ^CDDPNP_DOX&R848. ^CDDPNP_DOX&R848 exhibits sufficient stability, great pH responsibility, and brilliant tumor-targeting accumulation in vivo, which make it suitable for further in vivo applications. After intravenous injection, ^CDDPNP_DOX&R848 can release the loaded cargoes under the acidic TME continuously. DOX can induce tumor cell apoptosis in combination with CDDP and trigger immunogenic cell death. More importantly, the immune-activated TME created by R848 can facilitate tumor-associated antigen presentation and antitumor immunity elicitation. Benefiting from the synergistic effect of chemotherapy and immunotherapy, the growth of tumors and lung metastasis was greatly inhibited by ^CDDPNP_DOX&R848 in the K7M2 orthotopic osteosarcoma mouse model. Thus, this intelligent codelivery platform might be a competitive candidate for osteosarcoma immunochemotherapy.

Co-delivery of cisplatin and doxorubicin by carboxylic acid functionalized poly (hydroxyethyl methacrylate)/reduced graphene nanocomposite for combination chemotherapy of breast cancer cells

In this study a novel pH-responsive magnetic nanocomposite based on reduced graphene oxide was developed for combination of doxorubicin (Dox)-cisplatin (Cis) delivery to destroy the MCF-7 cell line. For this purpose, polyhydroxyethyl methacrylate (PHEMA) was bonded to the reduced graphene oxide through ATRP polymerization using grafting from method. Then the PHEMA hydroxy groups were converted to succinyloxy groups by polyesterification with succinic anhydride. The physicochemical properties of the nanocomposite were investigated via FTIR, SEM, XRD, DLS and TGA analysis. Unique structure of nanocomposite led to simultaneous encapsulation of Dox (75%) and Cis (82%) through ionic interaction, π-π stacking and hydrogen bonding. The obtained nanocomposite was uptake by MCF-7 cells at early first hour because of nanocomposite small size (below 70 nm). Cell viability assay results revealed that the Dox&Cis-loaded nanocomposite showed the highest rate of MCF-7 cells at lowest concentration (IC50 = 0.798 µg/mL) compared to treatment groups received single drug-loaded nanocomposite and free drugs. Dox&Cis-loaded nanocomposite exhibited a synergistic influence with the combination index (CI) value <1. The cell cycle analysis results revealed that the highest amount of apoptosis (cells population in sub G1 was 75%) was observed in the Dox&Cis-loaded nanocomposite treatment group compared with the single drug-loaded nanocomposite and free drugs. Our findings confirmed that combinational therapy by Dox and Cis graphene oxide-based nanocomposite has increased the cytotoxicity in MCF-7 cells by stimulating the apoptotic response.

The Synergistic Effect of Hyperthermia and Chemotherapy in Magnetite Nanomedicine-Based Lung Cancer Treatment

Background

Lung cancer is the leading cause of cancer patient death in the world. There are many treatment options for lung cancer, including surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, targeted therapy, and combined therapy. Despite significant progress has been made in the diagnosis and treatment of lung cancer during the past few decades, the prognosis is still unsatisfactory.

Purpose

To resolve the problem of chemotherapy failure, we developed a magnetite-based nanomedicine for chemotherapy acting synergistically with loco-regional hyperthermia.

Methods

The targeting carrier consisted of a complex of superparamagnetic iron oxide (SPIO) and poly(sodium styrene sulfonate) (PSS) at the core and a layer-by-layer shell with cisplatin (CDDP), together with methotrexate – human serum albumin conjugate (MTX−HSA conjugate) for lung cancer-specific targeting, referred to hereafter as SPIO@PSS/CDDP/HSA−MTX nanoparticles (NPs).

Results

SPIO@PSS/CDDP/HSA−MTX NPs had good biocompatibility and stability in physiological solutions. Furthermore, SPIO@PSS/CDDP/HSA−MTX NPs exhibited a higher temperature increase rate than SPIO nanoparticles under irradiation by a radiofrequency (RF) generator. Therefore, SPIO@PSS/CDDP/HSA−MTX NPs could be used as a hyperthermia inducer under RF exposure after nanoparticles preferentially targeted and then accumulated at tumor sites. In addition, SPIO@PSS/CDDP/HSA−MTX NPs were developed to be used during combined chemotherapy and hyperthermia therapy, exhibiting a synergistic anticancer effect better than the effect of monotherapy.

Conclusion

Both in vitro and in vivo results suggest that the designed SPIO@PSS/CDDP/HSA−MTX NPs are a powerful candidate nanoplatform for future antitumor treatment strategies.

Functionalized MoS2-nanoparticles for transdermal drug delivery of atenolol

Molybdenum disulfide (MoS2) has excellent photothermal conversion abilities, an ultra-high specific surface area, and has been extensively explored for use in biomedicine. However, the high toxicity associated with MoS2 has limited its biological applications for in vivo photothermal therapy and drug delivery systems. Herein, we have developed cationic hydroxyethyl cellulose (JR400) surface-modified MoS2 nanoparticles (NPs) that are responsive to near-infrared (NIR) laser irradiation as a transdermal drug delivery system (TDDS). Herein, we confirmed the preparation of hexagonal phase MoS2 with robust surface modification with JR400. The flower-like morphology of the NPs had an average diameter of 355 ± 69.3 nm limiting the absorption of the NPs through the stratum corneum. With the ability to efficiently load 90.4 ± 0.3% of the model drug atenolol (ATE), where 1 g of JR400-MoS2 NPs was able to load 3.6 g ATE, we assayed the controlled release capacity in vitro skin penetration studies. These JR400-MoS2 NPs showed further enhancement under NIR stimulation, with a 2.3-fold increase in ATE skin penetration. Furthermore, we verified in vivo that these JR400-MoS2 NPs do not cause skin irritation suggesting that they are promising new TDDS candidates for small molecule drugs.

Preparation and Evaluation of Doxorubicin-Loaded PLA-PEG-FA Copolymer Containing Superparamagnetic Iron Oxide Nanoparticles (SPIONs) for Cancer Treatment: Combination Therapy with Hyperthermia and Chemotherapy

Background

Among the novel cancer treatment strategies, combination therapy is a cornerstone of cancer therapy.

Materials and Methods

Here, combination therapy with targeted polymer, magnetic hyperthermia and chemotherapy was presented as an effective therapeutic technique. The DOX-loaded PLA–PEG–FA magnetic nanoparticles (nanocarrier) were prepared via a double emulsion method. The nanocarriers were characterized by particle size, zeta potential, morphology, saturation magnetizations and heat generation capacity, and the encapsulation efficiency, drug content and in-vitro drug release for various weight ratios of PLA:DOX. Then, cytotoxicity, cellular uptake and apoptosis level of nanocarrier-treated cells for HeLa and CT26 cells were investigated by MTT assay, flow cytometry, and apoptosis detection kit.

Results and Conclusions

The synthesized nanoparticles were spherical in shape, had low aggregation and considerable magnetic properties. Meanwhile, the drug content and encapsulation efficiency of nanoparticles can be achieved by varying the weight ratios of PLA:DOX. The saturation magnetizations of nanocarriers in the maximum applied magnetic field were 59/447 emu/g and 28/224 emu/g, respectively. Heat generation capacity of MNPs and nanocarriers were evaluated in the external AC magnetic field by a hyperthermia device. The highest temperature, 44.2°C, was measured in the nanocarriers suspension at w/w ratio 10:1 (polymer:DOX weight ratio) after exposed to the magnetic field for 60 minutes. The encapsulation efficiency improved with increasing polymer concentration, since the highest DOX encapsulation efficiency was related to the nanocarriers’ suspension at w/w ratio 50:1 (79.6 ± 6.4%). However, the highest DOX loading efficiency was measured in the nanocarriers’ suspension at w/w ratio 10:1 (5.14 ± 0.6%). The uptake efficiency and apoptosis level of nanocarrier-treated cells were higher than those of nanocarriers (folic acid free) and free DOX-treated cells in both cell lines. Therefore, this targeted nanocarrier may offer a promising nanosystem for cancer-combined chemotherapy and hyperthermia.

Association of the Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition (EMT) with Cisplatin Resistance

Therapy resistance is a characteristic of cancer cells that significantly reduces the effectiveness of drugs. Despite the popularity of cisplatin (CP) as a chemotherapeutic agent, which is widely used in the treatment of various types of cancer, resistance of cancer cells to CP chemotherapy has been extensively observed. Among various reported mechanism(s), the epithelial–mesenchymal transition (EMT) process can significantly contribute to chemoresistance by converting the motionless epithelial cells into mobile mesenchymal cells and altering cell–cell adhesion as well as the cellular extracellular matrix, leading to invasion of tumor cells. By analyzing the impact of the different molecular pathways such as microRNAs, long non-coding RNAs, nuclear factor-κB (NF-ĸB), phosphoinositide 3-kinase-related protein kinase (PI3K)/Akt, mammalian target rapamycin (mTOR), and Wnt, which play an important role in resistance exhibited to CP therapy, we first give an introduction about the EMT mechanism and its role in drug resistance. We then focus specifically on the molecular pathways involved in drug resistance and the pharmacological strategies that can be used to mitigate this resistance. Overall, we highlight the various targeted signaling pathways that could be considered in future studies to pave the way for the inhibition of EMT-mediated resistance displayed by tumor cells in response to CP exposure.