Macular edema associated with non-infectious uveitis: pathophysiology, etiology, prevalence, impact and management challenges

Microglial-mediated immune mechanisms in autoimmune uveitis: Elucidating pathogenic pathways and targeted therapeutics

This review offers a comprehensive examination of the role of microglia in the pathogenesis of autoimmune uveitis, an inflammatory eye disease with significant potential for vision impairment. Central to our discussion is the dual nature of microglial cells, which act as both protectors and potential perpetrators in the immune surveillance of the retina. We explore the mechanisms of microglial activation, highlighting the key signaling pathways involved, such as NF-κB, JAK/STAT, MAPK, and PI3K/Akt. The review also delves into the genetic and environmental factors influencing microglial behavior, underscoring their complex interaction in disease manifestation. Advanced imaging techniques and emerging biomarkers for microglial activation, pivotal in diagnosing and monitoring the disease, are critically assessed. Additionally, we discuss current and novel therapeutic strategies targeting microglial activity, emphasizing the shift towards more precise and personalized interventions. This article aims to provide a nuanced understanding of microglial dynamics in autoimmune uveitis, offering insights into potential avenues for effective treatment and management.

CYSTOID MACULAR EDEMA IN BIRDSHOT RETINOCHOROÏDITIS: Long-Term Treatment Study in 142 Patients

PURPOSE

To assess the long-term efficacy and safety of treatments for cystoid macular edema in birdshot retinochoroïditis.

METHODS

Observational retrospective study of 142 HLA-A29-positive patients with cystoid macular edema; the main outcome was the optical coherence tomography intraretinal cysts resolution.

RESULTS

During the mean follow-up of 75 months (12-178), 61.3% of patients were successfully treated using 1 to 3 treatment steps, while the others needed more steps. At 6 months, there were no significant effects on ME for anti-TNF (tumor necrosis factor) and IVIg (immunoglobulin) in contrast to antimetabolites (OR 1.98), systemic GCS (glucocorticosteroids), CsA (cyclosporine A) and tocilizumab (odds ratio closed to 2.7), intraocular injected GCS (odds ratio of 4.2), and interferon (odds ratio of 4.4). The percentages of therapeutic success trend to decrease from the initial three treatment steps to the subsequent treatment steps, for systemic GCS (84% to 70%), for anti-TNF (42% to 33%), and for CsA (71% to 33%); the success percentages did not decrease for injected GCS (83% to 89%). Macular edema recurrence occurred with the highest percentage for injected GCS (86.8%, P = 0.01) and the lowest for tocilizumab (10.5%, P = 0.001). Interferons-α and tocilizumab were associated with the lowest prednisone daily doses.

CONCLUSION

The classical uveitic cystoid macular edema therapeutic algorithm could be adapted to birdshot retinochoroïditis.

Corticosteroids for the Management of Uveitic Macular Edema: A Comprehensive Review

Uveitis, which refers to the inflammation of the uveal tract and surrounding structures in the eye, poses a significant risk of vision impairment, with macular edema (UME) being a prevalent complication. The current statement reviews UME's prevalence, pathogenesis, diagnosis, and management strategies, focusing on the utility of systemic and local corticosteroid therapy. Corticosteroids, with their multifaceted effects on inflammatory pathways, serve as the cornerstone of UME treatment. Various administration routes, including topical, periocular, intraocular, and systemic, are employed based on the anatomical type and severity of inflammation. The efficacy of different corticosteroid formulations, such as difluprednate, triamcinolone acetonide, dexamethasone implant, and fluocinolone acetonide implant, is evaluated through clinical trials and retrospective studies. Additionally, the role of corticosteroid-sparing treatments, including antimetabolites like methotrexate and mycophenolate mofetil, is explored. Emerging techniques, such as suprachoroidal space triamcinolone acetonide administration, offer promising alternatives for managing UME. Through a thorough examination of current evidence, this review provides valuable insights into optimizing the management of UME and improving visual outcomes in patients with uveitis.

What's New in Ocular Drug Delivery: Advances in Suprachoroidal Injection since 2023

Despite significant advancements in ocular drug delivery, challenges persist in treating posterior segment diseases like macular edema (ME) and age-related macular degeneration (AMD). Suprachoroidal (SC) injections are a promising new method for targeted drug delivery to the posterior segment of the eye, providing direct access to the choroid and retina while minimizing systemic exposure and side effects. This review examines the anatomical and physiological foundations of the SC space; evaluates delivery devices such as microcatheters, hypodermic needles, and microneedles; and discusses pharmacokinetic principles. Additionally, advancements in gene delivery through SC injections are explored, emphasizing their potential to transform ocular disease management. This review also highlights clinical applications in treating macular edema, diabetic macular edema, age-related macular degeneration, choroidal melanoma, and glaucoma. Overall, SC injections are emerging as a promising novel route for administering ophthalmic treatments, with high bioavailability, reduced systemic exposure, and favorable safety profiles. Key therapeutic agents such as triamcinolone acetonide, dexamethasone, AAV-based gene therapy, and axitinib have shown promise. The field of suprachoroidal injection is progressing rapidly, and this review article, while attempting to encapsulate most of the published preclinical and clinical studies, mainly focuses on those that are published within 2023 and 2024.

Ocular Complications of Intermediate Uveitis

Intermediate uveitis (IU) in an intraocular inflammation that predominantly affects the vitreous. It typically manifests as chronic low-grade inflammation, mainly affecting children and young adults. Uncontrolled chronic intraocular inflammation carries a high risk of visual loss. IU, despite being a low-grade inflammation, is among the sight-threatening conditions owing to its intrinsically-associated vision-robbing ocular complications. It can cause early and late-onset ocular complications affecting the anterior and posterior segments of the eye. 40-60% of the patients who suffer from IU will develop at least one ocular complication during the disease course. Prompt management and long-term monitoring are vital for the early detection of ocular complications and timely intervention. Proactive screening programs are essential in children because of the occult nature of IU in the pediatric age group and the high prevalence of complications at the initial visit. This review provides a comprehensive panorama of anterior segment complications, namely, band keratopathy, corneal endotheliopathy, posterior synechiae, and cataract as well as of posterior segment complications including macular edema, retinoschisis, retinal detachment, vitreous hemorrhage, vasoproliferative tumor, optic neuritis, and papillitis, in addition to glaucoma and hypotony.

Uveitis in the Pediatric Population and Therapeutic Management: A Current Literature Review

Uveitis is an inflammatory disease that can lead to severe complications, including vision loss. The pediatric population is particularly at risk of developing complications, as uveitis in this age group often has idiopathic origins or is associated with systemic diseases that follow a severe course. This, coupled with unfavorable treatment outcomes, continues to be a challenge in pediatric ophthalmology. The cornerstone of uveitis treatment involves a therapeutic strategy that depends on the etiology, severity, and localization of the inflammation, as well as the patient's response to treatment and the presence of ocular complications. Patients who do not receive timely treatment face a significantly increased risk of experiencing a severe disease course. Understanding potential therapeutic options and their side effects is crucial in managing children with uveitis. Equally important is the continuous monitoring of the child's condition throughout the treatment process, due to the chronic and recurrent nature of uveitis in this demographic. The authors conducted a review of the current literature from 2018 to 2023 on the management and introduction of new therapeutic approaches for children with uveitis.

AAV-mediated gene therapies for glaucoma and uveitis: are we there yet?

Glaucoma and uveitis are non-vascular ocular diseases which are among the leading causes of blindness and visual loss. These conditions have distinct characteristics and mechanisms but share a multifactorial and complex nature, making their management challenging and burdensome for patients and clinicians. Furthermore, the lack of symptoms in the early stages of glaucoma and the diverse aetiology of uveitis hinder timely and accurate diagnoses, which are a cause of poor visual outcomes under both conditions. Although current treatment is effective in most cases, it is often associated with low patient adherence and adverse events, which directly impact the overall therapeutic success. Therefore, long-lasting alternatives with improved safety and efficacy are needed. Gene therapy, particularly utilising adeno-associated virus (AAV) vectors, has emerged as a promising approach to address unmet needs in these diseases. Engineered capsids with enhanced tropism and lower immunogenicity have been proposed, along with constructs designed for targeted and controlled expression. Additionally, several pathways implicated in the pathogenesis of these conditions have been targeted with single or multigene expression cassettes, gene editing and silencing approaches. This review discusses strategies employed in AAV-based gene therapies for glaucoma and non-infectious uveitis and provides an overview of current progress and future directions.

Challenges for further successful development of tumor necrosis factor targeting therapies for uveitis

INTRODUCTION

Uveitis is a heterogeneous group of ocular conditions characterized by inflammation of the uveal tract and is one of the leading causes of vision impairment. In developed countries, noninfectious uveitis (NIU) represents most cases and is challenging to treat due to its severity, chronicity, and high recurrence rates. The advent of anti-tumor necrosis factor-α (anti-TNF-α) agents have dramatically improved outcomes and changed treatment paradigms in NIU.

AREAS COVERED

The index article summarizes the present experience of anti-TNF-α agents in NIU pharmacotherapy and highlights the barriers to further research and development of anti-TNF-α agents for uveitis. Common challenges faced in NIU clinical drugs trials, specific difficulties in anti-TNF-α drug development, and promising competitor drug candidates are discussed and evaluated.

EXPERT OPINION

Anti-TNF-α agents have revolutionized NIU pharmacotherapy and greatly improved outcomes with good safety profiles. The great success of systemic infliximab and adalimumab in NIU treatment has resulted in little impetus for further development of this class of medication. Attempts have been made to deliver anti-TNF-α agents intravitreally but that has not been successful thus far. With expiring patents, competition from biosimilars and newer, novel molecules, it may not be viable to continue pursuing anti-TNF-α drug development.

Diagnosis, Treatment, and Prevention of Noninfectious Acute Anterior Uveitis with or without Human Leukocyte Antigen B27 in Adults - Expert Consensus in Taiwan

BACKGROUND

Anterior uveitis is the most common anatomical type of uveitis. Patients with noninfectious anterior uveitis may develop various ocular complications and eventually visual impairment. Appropriately differentiating the etiologies can help clinicians to predict the outcome, arrange clinical follow-up, and decide the treatment or prevention strategy. Adequate treatment and effective prevention strategies can reduce the frequency of recurrence and the risk of developing complications. Human leukocyte antigen (HLA)-B27 is the most common positive finding in patients with noninfectious AAU in many countries including Taiwan.

PURPOSE

To report a consensus from experienced uveitis specialists and rheumatologists was made in Taiwan.

METHODS

A panel of nine ophthalmologists from nine different referral centers with expertise in the management of uveitis and an experienced rheumatologist was held on January 16, 2022. A comprehensive literature review was performed. Differential diagnoses for etiologies, general treatments, and prevention strategies were discussed. Each statement in the consensus was made only if more than 70% of the experts agreed.

RESULTS

A flow chart and seven statements regarding the differential diagnoses for etiologies, treatments and preventions, and co-management with rheumatologists were included in the consensus.

CONCLUSIONS

This article discusses the general diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of noninfectious acute anterior uveitis, with or without HLA-B27, in adults for general ophthalmologists to improve overall outcomes of these patients.

Refractory post-surgical cystoid macular edema managed following suprachoroidal microcatheterization and delivery of triamcinolone

BACKGROUND

Post-surgical macular edema (ME) is a common cause of prolonged visual impairment. Here we report on the feasibility and clinical outcomes from the use of a novel suprachoroidal microcatheter to treat post-surgical chronic ME by the posterior suprachoroidal placement of a triamcinolone acetonide (TA) suspension.

METHODS

Two patients were catheterized with the Oxulumis suprachoroidal delivery system on two separate occasions starting 5 and 10 mm posterior to the limbus. The catheter only remains in the suprachoroidal space for the time of the drug administration. Visual acuity and spectral domain optical coherence tomography (SD-OCT) changes were followed over several weeks to months to determine the duration of ME resolution.

RESULTS

Suprachoroidal microcatheterization for posterior delivery of triamcinolone was possible in all attempts using the illuminated Oxulumis catheter. No reflux, scleral or choroidal trauma was observed. There was no intraocular pressure rise during the follow-up period. The triamcinolone deposit was visible on infrared imaging and on SD-OCT a choroidal elevation was visible. Both progressively disappeared over time. A rapid resolution of ME associated with improved vision was observed following each injection for 3 to 7 months with a TA dose of 2.4 mg or 4 mg.

CONCLUSIONS

In these patients with poorly responsive ME, posterior suprachoroidal TA led to a visible suprachoroidal drug deposit and prolonged visual improvement. The Oxulumis microcatheterization device performed as expected and was not associated with any complications.

Optical Coherence Tomography: Focus on the Pathology of Macula in Scleritis Patients

Optical coherence tomography (OCT) is a non-invasive imaging technique for high-resolution, cross-sectional tissue imaging of the eye. During the past two and a half decades, OCT has become an essential tool in ophthalmology. It is a painless method for examining details of ocular structures in vivo with high resolution that has revolutionized patient care following and treating scleritis patients.

METHODS

Twenty-four patients diagnosed with scleritis were selected for this study. All of the patients went through basic ophthalmological examinations, such as visual acuity testing (VA), intraocular pressure measurement (IOP), slit lamp examination, ophthalmoscopic examination, and OCT. OCT examinations were taken by SD-OCT Spectralis OCT system (Heidelberg Engineering, Heidelberg, Germany).

RESULTS

Twenty-seven eyes of 24 patients (7 males and 17 females) were included in this study, who were diagnosed with scleritis. OCT examinations showed epiretinal membrane (ERM) in three patients (12%), cystoid macular edema (CME) (three cases, 12%), diffuse macular edema (DME) (one case, 4%), and serous retinal detachment (SRD) (one case, 4%).

CONCLUSIONS

OCT proved to be a valuable, non-invasive method for detecting macular pathology in patients with scleritis. Despite the best treatment regimen applied, macular involvement resulting in reduced visual acuity (VA) can develop, which we could detect with OCT since macular edema (ME) is the leading cause of decreased vision due to the damaged outer blood-retina barrier (BRB) in inflammation. OCT investigation is a highly important method for early detection of ocular complications in scleritis in order to prevent blindness.

Inflammatory eye disease for rheumatologists

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

This review provides a framework for understanding inflammatory eye disease diagnosis, differential diagnosis, and management for rheumatologists. Uveitis, scleritis, episcleritis, peripheral ulcerative keratitis, and orbital inflammation are all discussed. The goal is to facilitate the development of approaches to inflammatory eye diseases that will help rheumatologists co-manage these patients with eye care providers specializing in ocular inflammation.

RECENT FINDINGS

In recent years, studies have aimed to advance biologic treatments and define standard-of-care therapy. Inflammatory eye diseases are highly heterogeneous and often rare, which poses significant challenges to their research and the interpretation of existing data. To date, glucocorticoids, mycophenolate, methotrexate, and TNF inhibitors remain the mainstay of treatment options for many of these diseases.

SUMMARY

Patients with inflammatory eye diseases require multidisciplinary care for best outcomes, frequently including rheumatologists. Understanding the differentials, diagnostics, and treatment are essential to preserving vision in these patients. The diverse nature of the disease processes within this field requires focusing on specific disease phenotypes and endotypes in research and clinical practice.

Immunity status and expression of molecular markers (ICAM-1, CD5, CD25, CD95) on lymphocytes of patients with recurrent anterior uveitis complicated by macular edema

BACKGROUND

Treatment of macular edema in uveitis is a key goal of treatment, because this complication remains a potential therapeutic problem for specialists.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Examination was carried out in 1-2 groups - 50 persons with uncomplicated recurrent anterior uveitis (AU) in the stage of relapse or remission - and 3-4 groups - 26 persons with recurrent AU complicated by uveitic macular edema (UME) in the stage of relapse or remission of AU. Control group - 27 healthy volunteers. All patients underwent an ophthalmologic examination, using OCT (Spectralis HRA + OCT (Heidelberg Engineering)). The state of cellular and humoral immunity and the expression of activation markers on blood lymphocytes in all patients were assessed. An immunohistocytochemical analysis using monoclonal antibodies (the peroxidase-anti-peroxidase method) was employed to assess the expression of lymphocyte activation markers. The monoclonal antibody panel (MCAP) for immunophenotyping included antibodies reacting with CD5, CD54 (ICAM-1), CD25, and CD95 (FAS) antigens. Immunophenotyping was performed using immunohistochemistry.

RESULTS

In the patients with AU + UME, the parameters of the T-cell link of the immune response were increased and the parameters of humoral immunity (CD19, IgA, IgG) were decreased in comparison with the uncomplicated AU patients. The absolute and relative numbers of natural killer cells in the peripheral blood were higher, and the relative numbers of phagocytic neutrophils were lower in the group of anterior uveitis with UME than in uncomplicated AU. The absolute and relative expression levels of ICAM-1 (CD54) and the absolute expression level of CD5 on peripheral blood lymphocytes were increased in relapse at patients with AU + UME compared with uncomplicated AU. The expression levels of CD25 and CD95 were not different in these groups.

CONCLUSION

Activation of cellular immunity markers ICAM-1 and CD5 seems to play a role in uveitic macular edema. The expression levels of CD25 and CD95 were not significantly different in these groups.

Ciclosporin A in bilateral auto-immune chronic posterior uveitis associated with macular oedema: a Long-term Observational Safety and Efficacy Study

OBJECTIVE

A non-interventional, longitudinal, retrospective follow-up study to assess CsA-induced nephrotoxicity (IN) and its reversibility after withdrawal in patients exhibiting a bilateral chronic posterior uveitis (CPU) associated with cystoid macular oedema (CMO) in at least one eye. Data from medical records between 1986 and 2013.

METHODS

Primary outcome was the renal tolerance during and after CsA treatment assessed by plasma creatinine concentration and glomerular filtration rate (GFR) estimated by Chronic Kidney Disease Epidemiology (CKD-Epi) formula. Secondary outcomes were CsA through concentration, occurrence of cancers and ophthalmologic efficacy assessed by three parameters including CMO, vitreous inflammation, and best-corrected visual acuity BVCA changes.

RESULTS

One hundred forty-three patients were followed for renal tolerance. Underlying diseases were Birdshot retinochoroiditis (n = 67), Behçet disease (n = 9), probable sarcoidosis (n = 23), sympathetic ophthalmia (n = 3), idiopathic (n = 41). After CsA discontinuation in 115 patients (mean treatment duration of 5.9 ± 3.8 years) mean plasma creatinine concentration was 82.2 ± 14.2 µmol/L versus 82.1 ± 14.1 µmol/L at baseline, mean GFR was 79.4 ± 13.9 mL/min versus 82.5 ± 14.3 mL/min at baseline, with no significant difference (respectively p = 0.91 and p = 0.09). Blood pressure did not significantly change during follow-up. CMO was completely resorbed in at least one eye, in 70.8% patients (n = 72) at 6 months, in 71.4% patients (n = 49) at 10 years and in 54.2% patients (n = 24) at 20 years. BCVA did not statistically change over time.

CONCLUSION

Early and long-term monitoring of renal tolerance and dual adjustment of CsA doses in inflammatory stages of CPU were associated with reversible CsA IN. CsA could be effective in the treatment of CMO in CPU patients.

Suprachoroidal Injection of Triamcinolone Acetonide Injectable Suspension for the Treatment of Macular Edema Associated With Uveitis in the United States: A Cost-Effectiveness Analysis

OBJECTIVES

Suprachoroidal injection of triamcinolone acetonide is the first Food and Drug Administration-approved treatment for macular edema associated with uveitis. A cost-effectiveness analysis was performed comparing this treatment with best supportive care (BSC) for the management of this indication from US Medicare and commercial payer perspectives.

METHODS

A patient-level simulation was developed per the patient characteristics and changes in best-corrected visual acuity letter scores observed in a phase III study of triamcinolone acetonide (PEACHTREE). The wholesale acquisition cost of triamcinolone acetonide was $1650/injection; suprachoroidal injection cost was assumed at $200/injection. Healthcare costs were informed by a US claims-based analysis. Mortality risk associated with severe vision loss and blindness was modeled by applying a hazard ratio to all-cause mortality rates of the US general population. Health-related quality of life weights, obtained from a regression model fitted to the Visual Function Questionnaire-25 data from PEACHTREE, were applied based on the best-corrected visual acuity scores of both eyes. Costs (2020 US dollar) and benefits were discounted at 3% annually. Incremental cost-effectiveness ratios were estimated over a 10-year horizon.

RESULTS

In the base-case, the incremental cost-effectiveness ratio comparing triamcinolone acetonide with BSC was $28 479 per quality-adjusted life-year gained. The wholesale acquisition cost for triamcinolone acetonide for suprachoroidal use was ∼68%, ∼56%, and ∼27% below the willingness-to-pay thresholds of $150 000, $100 000, and $50 000 per quality-adjusted life-year gained, respectively. Results were robust in sensitivity and scenario analyses.

CONCLUSIONS

Triamcinolone acetonide for suprachoroidal use is cost-effective compared with BSC for patients with macular edema associated with uveitis.

Intravitreal fluocinolone acetonide implant for chronic postoperative cystoid macular edema - two years results

PURPOSE

We report visual and anatomical outcomes of chronic postoperative macular edema treated with a fluocinolone acetonide intravitreal implant.

METHOD

Retrospective study of chronic, post-surgical CME treated with a fluocinolone acetonide intravitreal implant. Best registered visual acuity (BRVA), central retinal thickness (CRT), and Goldmann tonometry intraocular pressure (IOP) were assessed over 24 months. The need for IOP lowering treatment, top-up therapy during follow-up, and complications were also assessed.

RESULTS

We analyzed 16 consecutive eyes of 16 patients with chronic, post-surgical CME treated with fluocinolone acetonide intravitreal implant. Surgical indications included cataract surgery, vitrectomy plus membrane peeling and combined phaco-vitrectomy. Baseline mean BRVA of 0.8 ± 0.65 logMAR improved to 0.60 ± 0.4 logMAR (p = 0.02) at 12 months and to 0.7 ± 0.5 logMAR (p = 0.32) at 24 months. At month 12, BRVA improved in 11 eyes, stabilized in 4 eyes, and decreased in 1 eye. At month 24, VA remained improved in 5 eyes, remained stabilized in 5 eyes, and decreased in 1 eye. Mean CRT decreased from 524 ± 132 μm at baseline to 389 μm at month 3, 347 μm at month 6, 355 ± 106 μm (p = 0.0003) at month 12, and 313 ± 83 μm (p = 0.0001) at month 24. At 12 months, CRT improved in 13 eyes and remained unchanged in 2 eyes. At 24 months, CRT improved further in 8 eyes, and stabilized in 3 eyes. Increased IOP (≥21 mmHg) was observed only in 4 eyes, all successfully managed with topical medication. No further side effects were observed in any patient.

CONCLUSION

Visual and anatomic improvements were achieved by a single fluocinolone acetonide implant with few side effects up to 24 months in CME eyes with a long and heavy prior treatment history.

Aqueous Humor Factors' Predictive Effects in Treating Refractor Macular Edema: An Overview

The refractory macular edema (RME) seriously affects the patient's vision due to its repetition and ineffective drug response. RME is mainly related to the inflammatory pathway and angiogenesis pathway. At present, microglia activation and angiogenesis have also been widely focused on. With the promotion of the concept of precision diagnosis and treatment, intraocular fluid is becoming a popular evidence-based method. The detection and evaluation of aqueous humor factors can provide more accurate evidences and guidance for the treatment of RME. The purpose of this article is to review the treatment prediction and assessment progress of aqueous humor cytokines for the RME, giving evidence to provide a basis for expanding the diagnosis and treatment ideas of RME and guiding the development of personalized medical treatment.

Triamcinolone acetonide injectable suspension for suprachoroidal use in the treatment of macular edema associated with uveitis

Introduction

Macular edema due to noninfectious uveitis is a sight-threatening complication that is routinely treated with corticosteroids. Triamcinolone acetonide injectable suspension for suprachoroidal use (Xipere™) is an alternative treatment option for patients with non-infectious uveitis associated macular edema.

Areas covered

This review describes the recently FDA approved triamcinolone acetonide injectable suspension that can be injected into the suprachoroidal space. This physiological space is between the sclera and choroid. This allows for therapeutic targeting of the retina and choroid. This review highlights published clinical trials for this novel drug preparation.

Expert opinion

Suprachoroidal administration of triamcinolone acetonide has shown improvement in vision and inflammation in studies with non-infectious uveitis associated macular edema. This unique delivery method suggests the potential to decrease side effects of anterior segment exposure such as glaucoma and cataract, but head-to-head trials are needed for further study of safety and efficacy. Additionally, there are promising prospective studies underway for utilization of the suprachoroidal space for other diseases including macular degeneration, diabetic macular edema, and ocular tumors.

Sarcoid Uveitis: An Intriguing Challenger

The purpose of our work is to describe the actual knowledge concerning etiopathogenesis, clinical manifestations, diagnostic procedures, complications and therapy of ocular sarcoidosis (OS). The study is based on a recent literature review and on the experience of our tertiary referral center. Data were retrospectively analyzed from the electronic medical records of 235 patients (461 eyes) suffering from a biopsy-proven ocular sarcoidosis. Middle-aged females presenting bilateral ocular involvement are mainly affected; eye involvement at onset is present in one-third of subjects. Uveitis subtype presentation ranges widely among different studies: panuveitis and multiple chorioretinal granulomas, retinal segmental vasculitis, intermediate uveitis and vitreitis, anterior uveitis with granulomatous mutton-fat keratic precipitates, iris nodules, and synechiae are the main ocular features. The most important complications are cataract, glaucoma, cystoid macular edema (CME), and epiretinal membrane. Therapy is based on the disease localization and the severity of systemic or ocular involvement. Local, intravitreal, or systemic steroids are the mainstay of treatment; refractory or partially responsive disease has to be treated with conventional and biologic immunosuppressants. In conclusion, we summarize the current knowledge and assessment of ophthalmological inflammatory manifestations (mainly uveitis) of OS, which permit an early diagnostic assay and a prompt treatment.

Anti-CD20 therapy for multiple sclerosis associated uveitis: a case series

BACKGROUND

About 1% of patients with multiple sclerosis (MS) suffer from uveitis, but data on the effects of immunotherapies for MS on MS-associated uveitis are scarce.

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the ophthalmological outcomes in patients with MS-associated uveitis treated with anti-CD20 therapy.

METHODS

Retrospective study of 12 eyes of 6 patients with MS-associated uveitis, refractory to previous immunotherapies. Uveitis activity was assessed before initiation of anti-CD20 therapy and at regular follow-up visits. Primary outcome measures were vitreous haze score, retinal vasculitis score determined on fluorescein angiography images, macular edema as quantified by central retinal thickness (CRT) on optical coherence tomography, and visual acuity. Secondary outcomes included the number of annualized uveitis or MS relapses, disease activity on cerebral magnetic resonance imaging (cMRI) and the expanded disability status scale (EDSS).

RESULTS

After a median (IQR) treatment time of 28.5 (8-43) months, anti-CD20 therapy was associated with an improvement of vitreous haze score (p=0.002), retinal vasculitis score (p=0.001), CRT (p=0.002), and visual acuity (p=0.007). The median (IQR) annualized uveitis relapse rate declined from 0.59 (0.56-0.94) before to 0 (0-0.49) after the start of anti-CD20 therapy. The median (IQR) annualized MS relapse rate declined from 0.62 (0.26-2.84) before to 0 (0-0) after the start of anti-CD20 therapy. After initiation of anti-CD20 therapy, there was no disease activity on cMRI and the EDSS improved (n=2) or remained stable (n=4). No severe adverse events were observed.

CONCLUSION

These findings suggest that anti-CD20 therapy may be a valuable treatment option for MS-associated uveitis.

Long-term Efficacy of TNF-alpha Inhibitors on Persistent Uveitic Macular Edema: A Swiss Multicenter Cohort Study

PURPOSE

To assess the efficacy of tumor necrosis factor-alpha inhibitors (TNFi) on uveitic macular edema (ME) unresponsive to conventional synthetic disease-modifying anti-rheumatic drugs (csDMARDs).

METHODS

This multicenter retrospective study included patients with uveitic ME persisting despite csDMARDs. The effect of an additional TNFi on central retinal thickness (CRT), best corrected visual acuity (BCVA) and corticosteroid need was evaluated.

RESULTS

Thirty-five eyes (26 patients, mean age 42.9 ± 15.2 years) were included. CRT decreased from 425 ± 137 µm to 294 ± 66 µm (p < .001) and 280 ± 48 µm (p < .001) at 1 and 4 years of follow-up, respectively. BCVA improved from 0.28 ± 0.22 to 0.21 ± 0.48 (1 year, p = .013) and 0.08 ± 0.13 logMAR (4 years, p = .002). The proportion of patients requiring systemic corticosteroids decreased from 88.5% to 34.8% (1 year) and 15.4% (4 years).

CONCLUSION

The addition of a TNFi resulted in an improvement of CRT and BCVA for up to 4 years in uveitic ME but rescue treatments were needed for some patients.

Optical coherence tomography angiography in intermediate uveitis-related cystoid macular edema

Background

Cystoid macular edema (CME) is the leading cause of permanent visual impairment in patients with uveitis, particularly in patients with intermediate uveitis (IU). This study was aimed at comparing the changes in the macular microvasculature in patients with IU with uveitic non-responsive CME and without macular edema.

Methods

In this case-control study, 55 eyes of patients with IU were assessed for macular microvascular structures, including vascular density, foveal avascular zone (FAZ) measurement, and vascular morphological changes, using spectral-domain optical coherence tomography angiography (OCT-A) with the AngioVue OCT-A system. We divided patients into the following two groups: the case group, including 30 eyes with IU-related non-responsive CME, and the control group, including 25 eyes with IU without macular edema.

Results

Participants in the case and control groups had comparable age (P = 0.753) and sex (P = 0.124) distributions. Superficial capillary plexus vessel density in the case group was significantly decreased in the whole image (P = 0.027) and the parafoveal area (P = 0.001) compared to the control group. However, there were no statistically significant differences between the two groups in terms of foveal superficial vessel density, deep capillary plexus vessel density, FAZ area, FAZ perimeter, FAZ acircularity index, or foveal vessel density in a 300-µm-wide annulus around the FAZ (all P > 0.05). Vascular morphological changes, such as the capillary tuft, telangiectatic vessels, or micro-aneurism, were not different in the overview images of the OCT-A printout between the two groups.

Conclusions

The mean superficial capillary plexus vessel density was lower in eyes with IU-related nonresponsive CME than in those without macular edema. We observed more cystoid spaces in SCP than in DCP. Microcystic changes in the inner retina and ischemia may be the underlying cause in eyes with nonresponsive CME. Future prospective longitudinal studies with healthy, matched controls are warranted to confirm our findings.

Increased vitreous levels of B cell activation factor (BAFF) and soluble interleukin-6 receptor in patients with macular edema due to uveitis related to Behçet's disease and sarcoidosis

PURPOSE

Uveitis accounts for 10-15% of all cases of blindness in the developed world. Uveitic macular edema (UME) is a primary cause of permanent visual impairment in patients with uveitis. Because proinflammatory mediators elicit inflammation and lead to UME, we determined the profiles of proinflammatory mediators associated with complications, such as ME, in the vitreous humor of patients with panuveitis related to Behçet's disease (BD) and sarcoidosis.

METHODS

In this retrospective study, we enrolled 21 patients with uveitis, including 6 with BD and 15 with sarcoidosis, and 15 patients with idiopathic epiretinal membrane (iERM) at the Department of Ophthalmology, Kyushu University Hospital, between January 2008 and April 2016. Vitreous concentrations of 32 proinflammatory mediators, including cytokines and soluble receptors of tumor necrosis factor (TNF) and interleukin (IL)-6 families, were assessed using a bead-based multiplex assay and their association with clinical data was examined.

RESULTS

The levels of proinflammatory mediators, including a proliferation-inducing ligand (APRIL), B cell activating factor belonging to the TNF family (BAFF), soluble cluster of differentiation 30 (sCD30), soluble TNF receptor-1 (sTNFR1), sTNFR2, TNF-α, IL-6, and soluble IL-6 receptor-α (sIL-6Rα), were significantly higher in patients with uveitis. With regard to clinical parameters in patients with uveitis, vitreous levels of BAFF and sIL-6Rα were prominently elevated in patients with UME compared to in those without UME (P < 0.01, respectively).

CONCLUSIONS

Our results suggest that elevated vitreous levels of BAFF and sIL-6Rα are associated with the pathogenesis of UME in patients with panuveitis related to BD and sarcoidosis.

Healthcare costs among patients with macular oedema associated with non-infectious uveitis: a US commercial payer's perspective

Objective

To describe patient characteristics and healthcare costs associated with uveitic macular oedema (UME) in US clinical practices from a commercial payer's perspective.

Methods and analysis

The IBM MarketScan Commercial Subset (1 October 2015-31 March 2020) was used to identify patients with non-infectious uveitis (NIU), with or without UME. Patients with UME at any time were further classified into subgroups of patients who received a UME diagnosis during the study period and those who received a UME diagnosis and local steroid injection (LSI) during the study period. Demographic and clinical characteristics, NIU-related treatments and healthcare costs were described for each cohort and subgroup during the most recent 12 months of continuous health plan enrolment. Healthcare costs were also described by vision status among all patients with NIU.

Results

A total of 36 322 patients with NIU were identified, of whom 3 301 (9.1%) had UME and 33 021 (90.9%) had no UME. Patients with UME more frequently received NIU-related treatment compared with those without UME (64.6% vs 45.0%), particularly LSI treatment (12.5% vs 0.7%). Mean total all-cause healthcare costs per-patient-per-year (PPPY) were higher among patients with UME ($19 851) than patients without UME ($16 188) and were especially high among those with bilateral UME ($24 162). Further, vision loss was more commonly observed in those with UME versus those without UME (5.7% vs 2.2%) and a trend of increasing healthcare costs with increasing vision loss was observed.

Conclusion

NIU is associated with substantial clinical and economic burden, particularly when UME is present.

Anti-Tumor Necrosis Factor α versus Tocilizumab in the Treatment of Refractory Uveitic Macular Edema: A Multicenter Study from the French Uveitis Network

PURPOSE

To analyze the factors associated with response (control of ocular inflammation and corticosteroid-sparing effect) to biologics (anti-tumor necrosis factor [TNF]-α agents and tocilizumab) in patients with refractory uveitic macular edema (ME).

DESIGN

Multicenter, retrospective, observational study.

PARTICIPANTS

Adult patients with uveitic ME refractory to systemic corticosteroids, disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs, or both.

METHODS

Patients received anti-TNF-α agents (infliximab 5 mg/kg at week 0, 2, 6, and every 4-6 weeks [n = 69] and adalimumab 40 mg/2 weeks [n = 80]) and tocilizumab (8 mg/kg every 4 weeks intravenously [n = 39] and 162 mg/week subcutaneously [n = 16]).

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Analysis of complete and partial response rates, relapse rate, low vision (visual acuity in at least 1 eye of ≥ 1 logarithm of the minimum angle of resolution), corticosteroid-sparing effect, and adverse events at 6 months.

RESULTS

Two hundred four patients (median age, 40 years [interquartile range, 28-58 years]; 42.2% men) were included. Main causes of uveitis included Behçet's disease (17.2%), birdshot chorioretinopathy (11.3%), and sarcoidosis (7.4%). The overall response rate at 6 months was 46.2% (21.8% of complete response) with anti-TNF-α agents and 58.5% (35.8% of complete response) with tocilizumab. In multivariate analysis, treatment with tocilizumab (odds ratio, 2.10; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.06-4.06; P = 0.03) was associated independently with complete response of uveitic ME compared with anti-TNF-α agents. Anti-TNF-α agents and tocilizumab did not differ significantly in terms of relapse rate (hazard ratio, 1.00; 95% CI, 0.31-3.18; P = 0.99) or occurrence of low vision (odds ratio, 1.02; 95% CI, 0.51-2.07; P = 0.95) or corticosteroid-sparing effect (P = 0.29). Adverse events were reported in 20.6% of patients, including serious adverse events reported in 10.8% of patients.

CONCLUSIONS

Tocilizumab seems to improve complete response of uveitic ME compared with anti-TNF-α agents.

Uveitis associated with cancer immunotherapy: long-term outcomes

Background: We report the long-term outcome of uveitis associated with cancer immunotherapy (CIT). Methods: This retrospective review included serial patients with CIT-associated uveitis treated using various regimen. Results: Eight patients treated with rituximab (anti-CD20), nivolumab (anti-PD-1), ipilimumab (anti-CTLA-4), vemurafenib and dabrafenib (anti-BRAF), trametinib (anti-MEK) and ibritunib showed uveitis with hypopion (one patient), macular edema (five patients) and choroiditis (two patients). Various regimens of corticosteroid therapy showed a favorable ophthalmological outcome, whether the CIT was continuing or suspended. Conclusion: Local corticosteroid injections in combination with CIT could be suggested as a first-line treatment. This could help to preserve the quality of life without threatening the vital prognosis.

Update on the Management of Uveitic Macular Edema

Uveitic macular edema (ME) is a frequent complication in 8.3% of uveitis patients and is a leading cause of serious visual impairment in about 40% of cases. Despite the numerous available drugs for its treatment, at least a third of patients fail to achieve satisfactory improvement in visual acuity. First-line drugs are steroids administered by various routes, but drug intolerance or ineffectiveness occur frequently, requiring the addition of other groups of therapeutic drugs. Immunomodulatory and biological drugs can have positive effects on inflammation and often on the accompanying ME, but most uveitic randomized clinical trials to date have not aimed to reduce ME; hence, there is no clear scientific evidence of their effectiveness in this regard. Before starting therapy to reduce general or local immunity, infectious causes of inflammation should be ruled out. This paper discusses local and systemic drugs, including steroids, biological drugs, immunomodulators, VEGF inhibitors, and anti-infection medication.

Suprachoroidal Injection of Triamcinolone- Review of a Novel Treatment for Macular Edema Caused by Noninfectious Uveitis

Macular edema is the most frequent cause of visual deterioration in noninfectious uveitis. The treatment of noninfectious uveitis with associated macular edema commonly includes systemic or locally administered corticosteroids, with long-term use limited by significant side effects. The need for a treatment with an improved safety profile has driven the development of a novel ophthalmic therapy: a proprietary triamcinolone acetonide suspension (CLS-TA) administered in the suprachoroidal space (XIPERE^™; Clearside Biomedical, Alpharetta, GA, USA). Suprachoroidal delivery of corticosteroids allows higher steroid concentration in the posterior segment and decreases the risk of other adverse ocular events. Recent results from the PEACHTREE trial (ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT02595398), a phase III trial with two suprachoroidal injections of CLS-TA at 0 and 12 weeks with follow up lasting 24 weeks, showed the significant improvement in visual acuity and reduction in central subfield thickness, all without increasing the risk of elevated intraocular pressure or accelerated cataract progression.

Structural Endpoints and Outcome Measures in Uveitis

Most uveitis entities are rare diseases but, taken together, are responsible for 5-10% of worldwide visual impairment which largely affects persons of working age. As with many rare diseases, there is a lack of high-level evidence regarding its clinical management, partly due to a dearth of reliable and objective quantitative endpoints for clinical trials. This review provides an overview of available structural outcome measures for uveitis disease activity and damage in an anatomical order from the anterior to the posterior segment of the eye. While there is a multitude of available structural outcome measures, not all might qualify as endpoints for clinical uveitis trials, and thorough testing of applicability is warranted. Furthermore, a consensus on endpoint definition, standardization, and "core outcomes" is required. As stipulated by regulatory agencies, endpoints should be precisely defined, clinically important, internally consistent, reliable, responsive to treatment, and relevant for the respective subtype of uveitis. Out of all modalities used for assessment of the reviewed structural outcome measures, optical coherence tomography, color fundus photography, fundus autofluorescence, and fluorescein/indocyanine green angiography represent current "core modalities" for reliable and objective quantification of uveitis outcome measures, based on their practical availability and the evidence provided so far.

Clinical outcomes of pediatric macular edema associated with non-infectious uveitis

Background

Macular edema (ME) is the most frequent cause of irreversible visual impairment in patients with uveitis. To date, little data exists about the clinical course of ME in pediatric patients. A retrospective, observational study was performed to examine the visual and macular thickness outcomes of ME associated with chronic, noninfectious uveitis in pediatric patients.

Methods

Pediatric patients with noninfectious uveitis complicated by ME seen in the University of California San Francisco Health System from 2012 to 2018 were identified using ICD-9 and ICD-10 codes. Data were collected from medical records including demographics, diagnoses, ocular history, OCT imaging findings, complications, and treatments at first encounter and at 3, 6, 9, and 12-month follow-up visits. Cox proportional hazards regression was used to investigate the association between different classes of treatment (steroid drops, steroid injections, oral steroids and other immunosuppressive therapies) and resolution of macular edema.

Results

The cohort comprised of 21 children (26 eyes) with a mean age of 10.5 years (SD 3.3). Undifferentiated uveitis was the most common diagnosis, affecting 19 eyes (73.1%). The majority of observed macular edema was unilateral (16 patients, 76.2%) and 5 patients had bilateral macular edema. The mean duration of follow-up at UCSF was 35.3 months (SD 25.7).

By 12 months, 18 eyes (69.2%) had achieved resolution of ME. The median time to resolution was 3 months (IQR 3–6 months). Median best-corrected visual acuity (BCVA) at baseline was 0.54 logMAR (Snellen 20/69, IQR 20/40 to 20/200). Median BCVA at 12 months was 0.1 logMAR (Snellen 20/25, IQR 20/20 to 20/50) Corticosteroid injections were associated with a 4.0-fold higher rate of macular edema resolution (95% CI 1.3–12.2, P = 0.01).

Conclusions

Although only 15% of the pediatric patients with uveitis in the study cohort had ME, it is clinically important to conduct OCTs to detect ME in this population. Treatment resulted in 69% of eyes achieving resolution of ME by 12 months, accompanied with improvement in visual acuity. Corticosteroid injections were significantly associated with resolution of macular edema.

Systemic contribution of inflammatory mediators to the severity of diabetic and uveitic macular edema

PURPOSE

To assess whether serum cytokine and growth factor levels are associated with diabetic macular edema (DME) and uveitic macular edema (UME) objective severity.

METHODS

Cross-sectional observational study of 81 patients (1 eye/patient) with DME (n=48) and UME (n=33). Macular edema (ME) was defined upon central macular thickness (CMT) ≥ 300 μm on spectral domain optical coherence tomography (OCT). Serum samples were obtained from peripheral blood and IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, MCP-1, TNF-α, and VEGF levels were determined by Luminex analysis. Main outcome measure was the correlation between mediators' levels and CMT and macular volume (MV) on OCT for ME cases.

RESULTS

In DME, IL-6 levels were found to significantly correlate with MV (r=0.324; p=0.028) whereas in UME, IL-8 was significantly associated with both CMT (r=0.401; p=0.021) and MV (r=0.391; p=0.024). IL-8 independently correlated with CMT (ß=177.2; p=0.033) and MV (ß=3.17; p=0.008) in UME multivariate model.

CONCLUSION

Peripheral blood IL-6 and IL-8 levels could play a role in the severity of DME and UME, respectively. IL-8 even seems to be independently associated with CMT and MV in UME cases. Such systemic implications could enforce DME and UME personalized diagnostic and therapeutic approaches.

Intraocular Inflammation Control and Changes in Retinal and Choroidal Architecture in Refractory Non-Infectious Uveitis Patients after Adalimumab Therapy

Background: Non-infectious uveitis represents a leading cause of visual impairment, and inflammation control represents a major priority in tackling visual acuity loss due to complications such as macular edema; different immunomodulatory drugs are currently being used, including anti-TNF-alpha Adalimumab. Methods: This was a monocentric observational study of 18 eyes of 18 patients with non-infectious uveitis treated with Adalimumab. The primary endpoint was the control of ocular inflammation. The secondary endpoints included the study of macular and choroidal thickness and architecture, visual acuity, changes in other treatments, and adverse effects. Results: Ocular inflammation was controlled at 12 months for 83.3% of patients. Central macular thickness improved from a median of 229.75 µm at baseline to 213 µm at 12 months, while choroidal thickness decreased by 11.54% at the end of the follow-up. A reduction of vasculitis on fluorescein angiography and of hyperreflective spots on optical coherence tomography was noted. Visual acuity also improved from 0.51 (logMAR) before treatment to 0.24 at more than 12 months (p = 0.01). A total of 11.1% of patients experienced side effects. Conclusion: Our study confirms the efficacy of adalimumab for the control of ocular inflammation, visual acuity preservation, and for corticosteroid sparing.