Overexpression of microRNA-216a inhibits autophagy by targeting regulated MAP1S in colorectal cancer

Autophagy-related miRNAs, exosomal miRNAs, and circRNAs in tumor progression and drug-and radiation resistance in colorectal cancer

Targeted therapies are often more tolerable than traditional cytotoxic ones. Nurses play a critical role in providing patients and caregivers with information about the disease, available therapies, and the kind, severity, and identification of any potential adverse events. By doing this, it may be possible to ensure that any adverse effects are managed quickly, maximizing the therapeutic benefit. In colorectal cancer (CRC), autophagy-related activities are significantly influenced by miRNAs and exosomal miRNAs. CRC development and treatment resistance have been associated with the cellular process of autophagy. miRNAs, which are short non-coding RNA molecules, have the ability to control the expression of genes by binding to the 3' untranslated region (UTR) of target mRNAs and either preventing or suppressing translation. It has been discovered that several miRNAs are significant regulators of CRC autophagy. By preventing autophagy, these miRNAs enhance the survival and growth of cancer cells. Exosomes are small membrane vesicles that are released by cells and include miRNAs among other bioactive compounds. Exosomes have the ability to modify recipient cells' biological processes by delivering their cargo, which includes miRNAs. It has been demonstrated that exosomal miRNAs control autophagy in CRC in both autocrine and paracrine ways. We will discuss the potential roles of miRNAs, exosomal miRNAs, and circRNAs in CRC autophagy processes and how nursing care can reduce unfavorable outcomes.

Molecular functions of microRNAs in colorectal cancer: recent roles in proliferation, angiogenesis, apoptosis, and chemoresistance

MiRNAs (microRNAs) constitute a group of diminutive molecules of non-coding RNA intricately involved in regulating gene expression. This regulation is primarily accomplished through the binding of miRNAs to complementary sequences situated in the 3'-UTR of the messenger RNA (mRNA) target; as a result, they are degraded or repressed. The multifaceted biogenesis of miRNAs is characterized by a meticulously orchestrated sequence of events encompassing transcription, processing, transportation, and decay. Colorectal cancer stands as a pervasive and formidable ailment, afflicting millions across the globe. Colorectal cancer is not well diagnosed early, and metastasis rates are high, which results in low survival rates in advanced stages. The genesis and progression of colorectal cancer are subject to the influence of genetic and epigenetic factors, among which miRNAs play a pivotal role. When it comes to colorectal cancer, miRNAs have a dual character, depending on the genes they target, functioning as either tumor suppressors or oncogenes and the prevailing cellular milieu. Their impact extends to modulating critical facets of colorectal cancer pathogenesis, including proliferation, angiogenesis, apoptosis, chemoresistance, and radiotherapy response. The discernible potential of miRNAs which are used as biomarkers to diagnose colorectal cancer, prognosis, and treatment response has come to the forefront. Notably, miRNAs are easily found and detected readily in a variety of biological fluids, including saliva, blood, urine, and feces. This prominence is attributed to the inherent advantages of miRNAs over conventional biomarkers, including heightened stability, specificity, sensitivity, and accessibility. Various investigations have pinpointed miRNA signatures or panels capable of differentiating colorectal cancer patients from their healthy counterparts, predicting colorectal cancer stage and survival, and monitoring colorectal cancer recurrence and therapy response. Although there has been research on miRNAs in various diseases, there has been less research on miRNAs in cancer. Moreover, updated results of preclinical and clinical studies on miRNA biomarkers and drugs are required. Nevertheless, the integration of miRNAs as biomarkers for colorectal cancer is not devoid of challenges and limitations. These encompass the heterogeneity prevalent among colorectal cancer subtypes and stages, the variability in miRNA expression across different tissues and individuals, the absence of standardized methodologies for miRNA detection and quantification, and the imperative for validation through extensive clinical trials. Consequently, further research is imperative to conclusively establish the clinical utility and reliability of miRNAs as colorectal cancer biomarkers. MiR-21 demonstrates carcinogenic characteristics by targeting several tumor suppressor genes, which encourages cell division, invasion, and metastasis. On the other hand, by controlling the Wnt/β-catenin pathway, the tumor suppressor miRNA miR-34a prevents CRC cell proliferation, migration, and invasion. Furthermore, in colorectal cancer, the miR-200 family increases chemotherapy sensitivity while suppressing epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT). As an oncogene, the miR-17-92 cluster targets elements of the TGF-β signaling pathway to encourage the growth of CRC cells. Finally, miR-143/145, which is downregulated in CRC, influences apoptosis and the progression of the cell cycle. These miRNAs affect pathways like Wnt, TGF-β, PI3K-AKT, MAPK, and EMT, making them potential clinical biomarkers and therapeutic targets. This review summarizes recent research related to miRNAs, their role in tumor progression and metastasis, and their potential as biomarkers and therapeutic targets in colorectal cancer. In addition, we combined miRNAs' roles in tumorigenesis and development with the therapy of CRC patients, leading to novel perspectives on colorectal cancer diagnosis and treatment.

Epigenetic regulation of autophagy by non-coding RNAs and exosomal non-coding RNAs in colorectal cancer: A narrative review

One of the major diseases affecting people globally is colorectal cancer (CRC), which is primarily caused by a lack of effective medical treatment and a limited understanding of its underlying mechanisms. Cellular autophagy functions to break down and eliminate superfluous proteins and substances, thereby facilitating the continual replacement of cellular elements and generating vital energy for cell processes. Non-coding RNAs and exosomal ncRNAs have a crucial impact on regulating gene expression and essential cellular functions such as autophagy, metastasis, and treatment resistance. The latest research has indicated that specific ncRNAs and exosomal ncRNA to influence the process of autophagy in CRC cells, which could have significant consequences for the advancement and treatment of this disease. It has been determined that a variety of ncRNAs have a vital function in regulating the genes essential for the formation and maturation of autophagosomes. Furthermore, it has been confirmed that ncRNAs have a considerable influence on the signaling pathways associated with autophagy, such as those involving AMPK, AKT, and mTOR. Additionally, numerous ncRNAs have the potential to affect specific genes involved in autophagy. This study delves into the control mechanisms of ncRNAs and exosomal ncRNAs and examines how they simultaneously influence autophagy in CRC.

Non-coding RNAs are involved in tumor cell death and affect tumorigenesis, progression, and treatment: a systematic review

Cell death is ubiquitous during development and throughout life and is a genetically determined active and ordered process that plays a crucial role in regulating homeostasis. Cell death includes regulated cell death and non-programmed cell death, and the common types of regulatory cell death are necrosis, apoptosis, necroptosis, autophagy, ferroptosis, and pyroptosis. Apoptosis, Necrosis and necroptosis are more common than autophagy, ferroptosis and pyroptosis among cell death. Non-coding RNAs are regulatory RNA molecules that do not encode proteins and include mainly microRNAs, long non-coding RNAs, and circular RNAs. Non-coding RNAs can act as oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes, with significant effects on tumor occurrence and development, and they can also regulate tumor cell autophagy, ferroptosis, and pyroptosis at the transcriptional or post-transcriptional level. This paper reviews the recent research progress on the effects of the non-coding RNAs involved in autophagy, ferroptosis, and pyroptosis on tumorigenesis, tumor development, and treatment, and looks forward to the future direction of this field, which will help to elucidate the molecular mechanisms of tumorigenesis and tumor development, as well as provide a new vision for the treatment of tumors.

Rational targeting of autophagy in colorectal cancer therapy: From molecular interactions to pharmacological compounds

The abnormal progression of tumors has been a problem for treatment of cancer and therapeutic should be directed towards targeting main mechanisms involved in tumorigenesis in tumors. The genomic mutations can result in changes in biological mechanisms in human cancers. Colorectal cancer is one of the most malignant tumors of gastrointestinal tract and its treatment has been faced some difficulties due to development of resistance in tumor cells and also, their malignant behavior. Hence, new therapeutic modalities for colorectal cancer are being investigated. Autophagy is a "self-digestion" mechanism that is responsible for homeostasis preserving in cells and its aberrant activation/inhibition can lead to tumorigenesis. The current review focuses on the role of autophagy mechanism in colorectal cancer. Autophagy may be associated with increase/decrease in progression of colorectal cancer due to mutual function of this molecular mechanism. Pro-survival autophagy inhibits apoptosis to increase proliferation and survival rate of colorectal tumor cells and it is also involved in cancer metastasis maybe due to EMT induction. In contrast, pro-death autophagy decreases growth and invasion of colorectal tumor cells. The status of autophagy (upregulation and down-regulation) is a determining factor for therapy response in colorectal tumor cells. Therefore, targeting autophagy can increase sensitivity of colorectal tumor cells to chemotherapy and radiotherapy. Interestingly, nanoparticles can be employed for targeting autophagy in cancer therapy and they can both induce/suppress autophagy in tumor cells. Furthermore, autophagy modulators can be embedded in nanostructures in improving tumor suppression and providing cancer immunotherapy.

Autophagy as a self-digestion signal in human cancers: Regulation by microRNAs in affecting carcinogenesis and therapy response

Autophagy is defined as a "self-digestion" signal, and it is a cell death mechanism its primary function is degrading toxic agents and aged organelles to ensure homeostasis in cells. The basic leve ls of autophagy are found in cells, and when its levels exceed to standard threshold, cell death induction is observed. Autophagy dysregulation in cancer has been well-documented, and regulation of this pathway by epigenetic factors, especially microRNAs (miRNAs), is interesting and noteworthy. miRNAs are considered short endogenous RNAs that do not encode functional proteins, and they are essential regulators of cell death pathways such as apoptosis, necroptosis, and autophagy. Accumulating data has revealed miRNA dysregulation (upregulation or downregulation) during tumor progression, and their therapeutic manipulation provides new insight into cancer therapy. miRNA/autophagy axis in human cancers has been investigated an exciting point is the dual function of both autophagy and miRNAs as oncogenic and onco-suppressor factors. The stimulation of pro-survival autophagy by miRNAs can increase the survival rate of tumor cells and mediates cancer metastasis via EMT inductionFurthermore, pro-death autophagy induction by miRNAs has a negative impact on the viability of tumor cells and decreases their survival rate. The miRNA/autophagy axis functions beyond regulating the growth and invasion of tumor cells, and they can also affect drug resistance and radio-resistance. These subjects are covered in the current review regarding the new updates provided by recent experiments.

Molecular mechanisms of microRNA-216a during tumor progression

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) as the members of non-coding RNAs family are involved in post-transcriptional regulation by translational inhibiting or mRNA degradation. They have a critical role in regulation of cell proliferation and migration. MiRNAs aberrations have been reported in various cancers. Considering the importance of these factors in regulation of cellular processes and their high stability in body fluids, these factors can be suggested as suitable non-invasive markers for the cancer diagnosis. MiR-216a deregulation has been frequently reported in different cancers. Therefore, in the present review we discussed the molecular mechanisms of the miR-216a during tumor progression. It has been reported that miR-216a mainly functioned as a tumor suppressor through the regulation of signaling pathways and transcription factors. This review paves the way to suggest the miR-216a as a probable therapeutic and diagnostic target in cancer patients.

Downregulation of STK25 promotes autophagy via the Janus kinase 2/signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 pathway in colorectal cancer

Autophagy plays a crucial role in colorectal cancer (CRC) development. Our previous study suggested that serine/threonine protein kinase 25 (STK25) regulates aerobic glycolysis in CRC cells. Glycolysis modulates cellular autophagy during tumor growth; however, the role of STK25 in autophagy remains unclear. In this study, we found that STK25 expression was decreased in CRC tissues and CRC patients with high STK25 expression had a favorable prognosis. Functional assays suggested that STK25 inhibition promoted autophagy in CRC cells. Overexpression of STK25 exhibited the opposite effects. Moreover, the results of western blot demonstrated that silencing STK25 induced autophagy by activating the JAK2/STAT3 pathway. Therefore, STK25 could be a potential indicator for therapies targeting the JAK2/STAT3 pathway in CRC.

Multi-Omics Reveal the Immunological Role and the Theragnostic Value of miR-216a/GDF15 Axis in Human Colon Adenocarcinoma

Colon adenocarcinoma (COAD) is the most common type of gastrointestinal cancer and is still the third leading cause of cancer-related mortality worldwide. Accurate screening tools for early diagnosis and prediction of prognosis and precision treatment strategies are urgently required to accommodate the unmet medical needs of COAD management. We herein aimed to explore the significance of the microRNA (miR)-216a/growth differentiation factor 15 (GDF15) axis in terms of clinical value, tumor immunity, and potential mechanisms in COAD by using multi-omic analysis. The gene expression levels of miR-216a and GDF15 showed an increase in the COAD group compared to those of the normal group. The expression of miR-216a presented a negative correlation with GDF15 in COAD tumor tissue. The use of an in vitro luciferase reporter assay and bioinformatic prediction revealed that miR-216a-3p acted toward translational inhibition on GDF15 by targeting its 3′untranslated region (UTR) site. High miR-216a expression was associated with decreased overall survival (OS), while the high expression of GDF15 was associated with increased OS. Enriched type 1 T-helper (Th1), enriched regulatory T (Treg), enriched eosinophils, and decreased nature killer T-cells (NKTs) in COAD tumor tissue may play counteracting factors on the tumor-regulatory effects of miR-216a and GDF15. In addition, high GDF15 expression had associations with suppressed immunoinhibitory genes and negative correlations with the infiltration of macrophages and endothelial cells. The enrichment analysis revealed that GDF15 and its co-expression network may be implicated in mitochondrial organization, apoptosis signaling, and endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress response. The Genomics of Drug Sensitivity in Cancer (GDSC) and Cancer Therapeutics Response Portal (CTRP) analysis identified that Gemcitabine acted as a precision treatment for COAD when GDF15 expression was low. This study supports the miR-216a/GDF15 axis as a diagnostic/prognostic panel for COAD, identifies Th1, Treg, eosinophils, and NKTs as counteracting factors, indicates potential relationships underlying immunomodulation, mitochondrial organization, apoptotic signaling, and ER stress and unveil Gemcitabine as a potential drug for the development of treatment strategy when combined with targeting GDF15.

The effect of miRNA and autophagy on colorectal cancer

Colorectal cancer (CRC) has become a concern because of its high recurrence rate and metastasis rate, low early diagnosis rate and poor therapeutic effect. At present, various studies have shown that autophagy is closely connected with the occurrence and progression of CRC. Autophagy is a highly cytosolic catabolic process involved in lysosomes in biological evolution. Cells degrade proteins and damaged organelles by autophagy to achieve material circulation and maintain cell homeostasis. Moreover, microRNAs are key regulators of autophagy, and their mediated regulation of transcriptional and post-transcriptional levels plays an important role in autophagy in CRC cells. This review focuses on the recent research advances of how autophagy and related microRNAs are involved in affecting occurrence and progression of CRC and provides a new perspective for the study of CRC treatment strategies.

Autophagy in cancers including brain tumors: role of MicroRNAs

Autophagy has a crucial role in many cancers, including brain tumors. Several types of endogenous molecules (e.g. microRNAs, AKT, PTEN, p53, EGFR, and NF1) can modulate the process of autophagy. Recently miRNAs (small non-coding RNAs) have been found to play a vital role in the regulation of different cellular and molecular processes, such as autophagy. Deregulation of these molecules is associated with the development and progression of different pathological conditions, including brain tumors. It was found that miRNAs are epigenetic regulators, which influence the level of proteins coded by the targeted mRNAs with any modification of the genetic sequences. It has been revealed that various miRNAs (e.g., miR-7-1-3p, miR-340, miR-17, miR-30a, miR-224-3p, and miR-93), as epigenetic regulators, can modulate autophagy pathways within brain tumors. A deeper understanding of the underlying molecular targets of miRNAs, and their function in autophagy pathways could contribute to the development of new treatment methods for patients with brain tumors. In this review, we summarize the various miRNAs, which are involved in regulating autophagy in brain tumors. Moreover, we highlight the role of miRNAs in autophagy-related pathways in different cancers.