Hepatitis C virus infection in the elderly: epidemiology, natural history and management

Effectiveness and safety of direct-acting antivirals in the therapy of HCV-infected elderly people

BACKGROUND

The introduction of direct-acting antivirals (DAAs) with their effectiveness and safety has revolutionized the approach to treating hepatitis C virus (HCV) infections. Nevertheless, elderly patients have often been excluded from clinical trials, so the results of real-world studies are particularly important in the context of the geriatric population. The study aimed to analyze the effectiveness and safety of antiviral DAA treatment in HCV-infected patients over the age of 65, with notable inclusion of those over the age of 85.

METHODS

The analyzed patients were divided by age into three groups: group A (65-74 years), group B (75-84 years) and group C (85 years or older). Patients started DAA based therapy at 22 hepatology centers between July 2015 and December 2022.

RESULTS

A total of 3505 elderly patients were included in the analysis, and this group consisted of 2501 patients in group A, 893 in group B, and 111 in group C. The study population, regardless of age, was dominated by women. Patients had a high prevalence of comorbidities (84.9%, 92.2%, and 93.7%, respectively) as well as a high rate of concomitant medications. The sustained virological response was 97.9% in groups A and B and 100% in group C. The therapy was well-tolerated, with a comparable safety profile observed in all analyzed groups.

CONCLUSIONS

DAA-based therapies are highly effective and well tolerated by the elderly patients, including those over 85. Age should not be a barrier to treatment, but careful management is necessary.

Cognitive Performance in Asymptomatic Elderly People with Hepatitis C: The Role of Education

BACKGROUND

Neurotropism of the hepatitis C virus (HCV) can be the source of subtle neuropsychological symptoms in non-cirrhotic patients. Age is a risk factor for cognitive impairment (CI). Thus, asymptomatic elderly people who carry HCV might be at a greater risk of CI. Education can influence test performance.

OBJECTIVES

(1) To verify whether elderly people with HCV performed poorer than controls on cognitive tests. (2) To analyze how education affects performance. (3) To verify whether the extent of the effect of education on performance depends on the group (HCV vs. controls) and the type of cognitive test.

METHODS

Asymptomatic HCV carriers older than 60 years (n = 41) were matched with 41 corresponding controls. All participants performed the following tests: Mini-Cog, Mini Mental State Examination, clock drawing test (CDT), and verbal fluency.

RESULTS

(1) There were no significant differences in cognitive performance between the two groups. (2) Higher education was always associated with better performance. (3) There was a significant group difference in the slopes of the regression lines between years of education and CDT performance. No differences were found for the other three tests.

CONCLUSION

Considering the scores on the CDT, the rate of improvement in performance when schooling increases is higher in HCV carriers.

A novel prognostic nomogram for older patients with acute-on-chronic liver diseases (AoCLD): a nationwide, multicentre, prospective cohort study

BACKGROUND

the incidence of acute-on-chronic liver disease (AoCLD) is increasing.

OBJECTIVE

to investigate the clinical features and risk factors of AoCLD and construct an effective prognostic nomogram model for older patients with AoCLD.

METHODS

data from 3,970 patients included in the CATCH-LIFE study were used, including 2,600 and 1,370 patients in the training and validation sets, respectively. Multivariate Cox regression analyses were performed to identify predictive risk factors in older individuals, and an easy-to-use nomogram was established. Performance was assessed using area under the curve, calibration plots and decision curve analysis (DCA).

RESULTS

of the 3,949 patients with AoCLD, 809 were older with a higher proportion of autoimmune-related abnormalities, hepatitis C viral infection and schistosomiasis. In the older patient group, the incidence of cirrhosis, hepatic encephalopathy (HE), infection, ascites and gastrointestinal bleeding; neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio (NLR), aspartate-to-alanine transaminase ratio (AST/ALT), creatinine and blood urea nitrogen levels were higher, whereas incidence of acute-on-chronic liver failure, white blood cell, platelet and haemoglobin levels; albumin, total bilirubin (TB), AST and ALT levels; international normalised ratio (INR), estimated glomerular filtration rate and blood potassium levels were lower than in the younger group. The final nomogram was developed based on the multivariate Cox analysis in training cohort using six risk factors: ascites, HE grades, NLR, TB, INR and AST/ALT. Liver transplantation-free mortality predictions were comparable between the training and validation sets. DCA showed higher net benefit for the nomograph than the treat-all or treat-none strategies, with wider threshold probabilities ranges.

CONCLUSIONS

our analysis will assist clinical predictions and prognoses in older patients with AoCLD.

Periodontal Disease and Risk of Dementia in Medicare Patients with Hepatitis C Virus

BACKGROUND

Periodontal disease and hepatitis C virus (HCV) represent chronic infectious states that are common in elderly adults. Both conditions have independently been associated with an increased risk for dementia. Chronic infections are thought to lead to neurodegenerative changes in the central nervous system possibly by promoting a proinflammatory state. This is consistent with growing literature on the etiological role of infections in dementia. Few studies have previously evaluated the association of periodontal disease with dementia in HCV patients.

OBJECTIVE

To examine whether periodontal disease increases the risk of developing Alzheimer's disease and related dementias (ADRD) among HCV patients in Medicare claims data.

METHODS

We used Medicare claims data for HCV patients to assess the incidence rate of ADRD with and without exposure to periodontal disease between 2014 and 2017. Cox multivariate regression was used to estimate the association between periodontal disease and development of ADRD, controlling for age, gender, race, ZIP-level income and education, and medical comorbidities.

RESULTS

Of 439,760 HCV patients, the incidence rate of ADRD was higher in patients with periodontal diseases compared to those without (10.84% versus 9.26%, p <  0.001), and those with periodontal disease developed ADRD earlier compared to those without periodontal disease (13.99 versus 21.60 months, p <  0.001). The hazard of developing ADRD was 1.35 times higher in those with periodontal disease (95% CI, 1.30 to 1.40, p <  0.001) after adjusting for all covariates, including age.

CONCLUSION

Periodontal disease increased the risk of developing ADRD among HCV patients in a national Medicare claims dataset.

Direct-acting antiviral treatment for Hepatitis C Virus in geriatric patients: a real-world retrospective comparison between early and late elderly patients

Introduction

Chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection rates are high in the geriatric population considering that interferon-based therapy is usually intolerable. With the introduction of oral antiviral therapy for HCV, increased treatment tolerability and good treatment responses have been observed. However, treatment data regarding the geriatric population have been limited. Therefore, this retrospective study aimed to evaluate the efficacy and safety of direct-acting antiviral therapy for HCV in the geriatric population.

Materials and Methods

The primary end point was sustained virologic response (SVR) 12 weeks after treatment completion, whereas the secondary end points were treatment-related side effects and short-term survival rate following treatment.

Results

In total, 492 patients (median age, 73 years; 43.9% males), including 278 early elderly patients, were enrolled. Among the included patients, 45% had cirrhosis. HCV genotypes 1 (72.4%) and 2 (25.4%) were the most common. The overall SVR rate was 96.7%, with no difference in SVR rates observed between early and late elderly groups (96.8% vs. 96.7%; p = 0.983). Both groups showed similar side effects, including dizziness (11.4%), and fatigue (8.7%), with three patients discontinuing therapy owing to side effects. Both groups had a similar 3-year survival rate. Significant factors associated with post-treatment survival included cirrhosis, albumin, and creatinine level.

Conclusions

Our real-world data showed that both early and late elderly patients could undergo direct-acting antiviral treatment for HCV with excellent treatment outcomes.

Hepatitis C direct-acting antiviral outcomes in patients 75 years and older

Background and Aim

Elderly patients with hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection have worse interferon‐based treatment outcomes than young patients. Direct‐acting antiviral (DAA) regimens have enabled the treatment of previously difficult‐to‐cure populations. There are few studies that specifically assess DAA treatment outcomes in patients over 75 years of age.

Methods

Design: This was a cohort study. Setting: The setting was three Canadian HCV specialty sites. Participants: Patients aged 75 years and older and treated with DAA without interferon were enrolled. Measurements: Patient demographics, liver fibrosis by transient elastography, treatment regimen, and treatment outcome data were collected.

Results

The mean age of 78 patients in our analysis was 78.6 years (SD 3.5; range: 75–88 years). The most common genotype was 1b (35%). The most frequently utilized regimens included sofosbuvir‐velpatasvir (33%) and ledipasvir‐sofosbuvir (32%). Ribavirin was included for 17% of recipients. Sustained virological response (SVR) was achieved in 94% of patients (69% of those receiving ribavirin and 98% of patients on ribavirin‐free regimens). Ribavirin toxicity contributed to the lower SVR rates in ribavirin‐exposed patients. Ribavirin dosage was decreased in three patients and ultimately discontinued in two of these patients. All treatment was discontinued in another two patients.

Conclusion

Ribavirin‐free DAA therapy is safe and achieves SVR rates in older adults comparable to those described in the general population. RBV inclusion frequently results in complications, often leads to treatment modification or interruption, and does not improve SVR rates in those with advanced age.

The Improvement in 1-Year Survival Rate of Patients with Hepatocellular Carcinoma BCLC Stage A and B after the Implementation of Comprehensive Management

BACKGROUND

The previous study showed lack of improvement in survival rate of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) patients in 2013-2014 period compared to 1998-1999 period in Indonesia due to late diagnosis. Comprehensive management of HCC has been implemented since 2015 in Cipto Mangunkusumo National General Hospital. This aims to provide better screening and surveillance in HCC patients and prioritizing of more proactive approach, such as online patient's group discussion and social media education.

AIM

To compare the survival rates in HCC BCLC stage A and B before and after the implementation of comprehensive management.

METHODS

A retrospective study design was conducted in this study. We compared the database of HCC BCLC A and B patients between the 2015-2017 period and the 2013-2014 period. Clinical parameters, modality of treatment, and 1-year survival rate were analyzed.

RESULTS

A total of 50 patients from 2013 to 2014 period and 143 patients from 2015 to 2017 period were included in this study. After the implementation of comprehensive management, the number of patients detected in BCLC class A increased significantly (p = 0.003). In 2015-2017 period, the number of patients that received curative treatment increased significantly (p = 0.018). The 1-year survival rate of the 2015-2017 group and the 2013-2014 group was 73.9% and 47.9%, respectively, with p value 0.002.

CONCLUSIONS

The 1-year survival rate of BCLC A and BCLC B HCC patients in Cipto Mangunkusumo National Hospital improved significantly after the implementation of comprehensive management of HCC in 2015.

Direct-acting antivirals for HCV treatment in older patients: A systematic review and meta-analysis

The advent of highly effective and well-tolerated direct antiviral antivirals (DAAs) has dramatically changed the landscape of chronic hepatitis C. The effect of DAAs in older adults is difficult to determine since patients aged ≥ 65 years were too few in most clinical trials and data mainly come from observational studies. We performed a systematic review and meta-analysis to evaluate the efficacy and safety of DAAs in patients aged 65 and older. PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, ClinicalTrials.gov, HCV-Trials.com databases were searched for literature published until 1 December 2017. English language articles reporting results of phase 2 or 3 randomized controlled trials (RCTs), single-arm clinical trials (SATs) and observational studies were included in the final analysis. All studies included subgroups of older patients and compared their outcomes with younger individuals. By using a random-effects or fixed-effects model, odds ratio (OR) was calculated for the efficacy and safety. Heterogeneity was tested using I² statistics. Thirty-seven studies reported data on the DAA efficacy. The OR was 1.66 (95%CI: 1.00-2.75; P = 0.06) in meta-analysis of RCTs, and similar results were found in SATs and observational studies. HCV genotype, stage of fibrosis or HIV co-infection did not affect the rate of SVR in older persons. Prevalence of anaemia (OR 0.26 95%CI: 0.09-0.69; P = 0.007) (OR 0.25 95%CI: 0.09-0.69; P = 0.007) and skin complaints (OR 0.61 95%CI: 0.45-0.83; P = 0.001) was higher in older adults. Finally, geriatric patients affected by chronic HCV infection can be safely treated with DAAs with the same efficacy reported in younger adults.

Expert opinion on the management of hepatitis C infection in Kuwait

Chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection is a leading cause of death, especially in immunocompromised patients. The lack of clear prevalence data in the Middle East makes it difficult to estimate the true morbidity and mortality burden of HCV. In Kuwait, estimating the burden of disease is complicated by the constant flow of expatriates, many of whom are from HCV-endemic areas. The development of new and revolutionary treatments for HCV necessitates the standardization of clinical practice across all healthcare institutions. While international guidelines from the American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases (AASLD) and European Association for the Study of the Liver (EASL) do address this evolving treatment landscape, the cost-driven treatment prioritization of patients by these guidelines and unique HCV genotype presentation in the Kuwaiti population prompted the development of a more tailored approach. The predominant HCV genotypes prevalent in Kuwait are genotypes 4 and 1. The Kuwait Hepatology Club (KHC), comprising hepatologists across all major institutions in Kuwait, conducted several consensus meetings to develop the scoring criteria, evaluate all current evidence, and propose screening, diagnosis, and treatment suggestions for the management of HCV in this population. While these treatment suggestions were largely consistent with the 2016 AASLD and 2015 EASL guidelines, they also addressed gaps in the unmet needs of the Kuwaiti population with HCV.

Improved Survival Among all Interferon-α-Treated Patients in HCV-002, a Veterans Affairs Hepatitis C Cohort of 2211 Patients, Despite Increased Cirrhosis Among Nonresponders

BACKGROUND

As the era of interferon-alpha (IFN)-based therapy for hepatitis C ends, long-term treatment outcomes are now being evaluated.

AIM

To more fully understand the natural history of hepatitis C infection by following a multisite cohort of patients.

METHODS

Patients with chronic HCV were prospectively enrolled in 1999-2000 from 11 VA medical centers and followed through retrospective medical record review.

RESULTS

A total of 2211 patients were followed for an average of 8.5 years after enrollment. Thirty-one percent of patients received HCV antiviral therapy, 15 % with standard IFN/ribavirin only, 16 % with pegylated IFN/ribavirin, and 26.7 % of treated patients achieved sustained virologic response (SVR). Cirrhosis developed in 25.8 % of patients. Treatment nonresponders had a greater than twofold increase in the hazard of cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma, compared to untreated patients, whereas SVR patients were only marginally protected from cirrhosis. Nearly 6 % developed hepatocellular carcinoma, and 27.1 % died during the follow-up period. Treated patients, regardless of response, had a significant survival benefit compared to untreated patients (HR 0.58, CI 0.46-0.72). Improved survival was also associated with college education, younger age, lower levels of alcohol consumption, and longer duration of medical service follow-up-factors typically associated with treatment eligibility.

CONCLUSIONS

As more hepatitis C patients are now being assessed for all-oral combination therapy, these results highlight that patient compliance and limiting harmful behaviors contribute a significant proportion of the survival benefit in treated patients and that the long-term clinical benefits of SVR may be less profound than previously reported.

Efficacy and safety of peginterferon plus ribavirin for patients aged ≥ 65 years with chronic hepatitis C: a systematic review and meta-analysis

METHODS

Studies up to August 30, 2012 of the efficacy and safety of peginterferon plus ribavirin therapy in CHC patients aged≥65 years were systematically identified in PubMed, Ovid, Web of Knowledge and Cochrane Library databases. A meta-analysis was performed using both fixed- and random-effects models based on heterogeneity across studies.

RESULTS

The overall sustained virological response (SVR) in CHC patients aged≥65 years was significantly lower than in patients aged<65 years on both intention-to-treat (ITT; 42.0% vs. 60.1%, respectively; P<0.00001) and per-protocol (PP; 54.4% vs. 67.4%, respectively; P=0.002) analyses, including treatment-naïve patients. Subgroup analysis showed that patients≥65 years with either hepatitis C virus (HCV) genotype 1/4 or 2/3 had lower SVR rates than younger patients. No statistically significant differences were observed between the two groups in terms of rapid virological response (RVR) and early virological response (EVR) rates (both P≥0.05). However, the end-of-treatment virological response (ETR) rate was lower in patients≥65 years, who also had a significantly higher risk of relapse than those aged<65 years (39.8% vs. 26.9%, respectively; P<0.00001). The discontinuation rate in the older patients was also significantly higher than in the younger patients (25.5% vs. 14.8%, respectively; P<0.00001). Ribavirin dose reduction in the older patients treated with peginterferon plus ribavirin was also significantly higher than in younger patients (44.5% vs. 32.8%, respectively; P<0.00001).

CONCLUSION

Peginterferon plus ribavirin therapy was effective for older patients with CHC, particularly those with HCV genotype 2/3. Response-guided therapy can be used for older patients with genotype 1/4, but such patients had poorer treatment adherence, leading to poorer treatment efficacy.

Impact of age on viral kinetics of peginterferon alfa-2a/ribavirin in chronic hepatitis C: final analysis from the PROPHESYS cohort

The population of patients with chronic hepatitis C viral infection is ageing; however, elderly, hepatitis C-infected patients are understudied and less frequently treated. This subanalysis of data from the multinational PROPHESYS study examined associations between age (≤65 vs >65 years), on-treatment virological response and sustained virological response (SVR) in patients treated with peginterferon alfa-2a (40KD)/ribavirin in accordance with local licences. PROPHESYS comprised three cohorts studied in 19 countries according to country-specific legal and regulatory requirements. This subanalysis includes treatment-naive HCV mono-infected patients assigned to receive peginterferon alfa-2a (40KD)/ribavirin, with 6276 individuals aged ≤65 years and 349 aged >65 years. Rapid virological response (RVR) rates by Week 4 were consistently lower in older genotype (G) 1 (21.6% vs 27.2% in younger patients), G2 (80.7% vs 85.1%) and G3 (60.0% vs 74.2%) patients. SVR rates were significantly lower (29.8% vs 43.0%) and relapse rates significantly higher (43.1% vs 26.7%) in older G1 patients (P = 0.0002 vs ≤65 years). In contrast, SVR and relapse rates were similar in G2 and G3 patients regardless of age. The positive predictive value of RVR for SVR was comparable in older and younger G1 patients (66.7% vs 68.6%, respectively) and higher in older G2 (80.7% vs 75.6%) and G3 (77.8% vs 66.8%) patients. Virological response rates are generally lower in elderly CHC patients, and RVR is a reliable positive predictor of SVR in patients >65 years.

Taking stock of infections and antibiotic resistance in the elderly and long-term care facilities: A survey of existing and upcoming challenges

Treating elderly patients with infections represents one of the greatest challenges to health-care providers. Older adults are the largest growing sector of the population and suffer excessively from infectious diseases such as pneumonia, urinary tract infections (UTIs), and skin and soft-tissue infections. Often because of disabilities, the elderly require treatment of infectious diseases in long-term care facilities (LTCFs). As a result of antibiotic use, LTCFs have become "reservoirs of resistance" and multi-drug resistant (MDR) pathogens are frequently recovered. Clinicians also need to be aware of the impairment of immune function and other emerging chronic infections (HIV, HCV) that are now present in the elderly. Despite vigilance regarding this issue, delays in diagnosis and initiation of therapy are common. This article reviews the changing landscape of infections in the elderly and the challenge these syndromes present in the context of an increasing older population that requires dedicated resources.

Impact of ribavirin dose reduction on the efficacy of pegylated interferon plus ribavirin combination therapy for elderly patients infected with genotype 1b and high viral loads

AIM

  To examine the impact of ribavirin dose reduction on the efficacy of pegylated interferon (PEG IFN) plus ribavirin combination therapy for elderly patients infected with genotype 1b and high viral loads.

METHODS

  A total of 72 patients, over 65 years old, were recruited for this study. Patients were divided into groups receiving either 600-800 mg of ribavirin according to bodyweight (Group 1, n = 36) or 400 mg of ribavirin (Group 2, n = 36) plus 1.5 µg/kg (range: 1.3-2.0 µg/kg) of PEG IFN-α-2b for 48 weeks.

RESULTS

  Total ribavirin doses were administrated at 9.80 ± 2.39 mg/kg per day (3.29 ± 0.80 g/kg) for Group 1 and 5.87 ± 1.82 mg/kg per day (1.97 ± 0.61 g/kg) for Group 2 (P < 0.001). According to the total clearance (CL/F) of ribavirin, 34 of 36 patients in Group 1 received over-doses of ribavirin. In contrast, numbers of those receiving equivalent doses of ribavirin were two of 36 patients in Group 1 and 36 of 36 patients in Group 2, respectively (P < 0.001). End-of-treatment response (ETR) rates were observed in 23 of 36 patients (63.9%) in the standard ribavirin dose protocol and in 23 of 36 patients (63.9%) in the reduction ribavirin dose protocol (NS). Sustained virological response (SVR) rates were observed in 11 of 36 patients (30.6%) in the standard ribavirin dose protocol, and in 13 of 36 patients (36.1%) in the reduced ribavirin dose protocol (NS).

CONCLUSION

  Reduction of ribavirin doses for elderly patients did not affect the outcome for the 48-week combination therapy.

Worse recent efficacy of antiviral therapy in liver transplant recipients with recurrent hepatitis C: impact of donor age and baseline cirrhosis

We hypothesized that antiviral efficacy [sustained virologic response (SVR)] has improved in recent years in the transplant setting. Our aim was to assess whether the efficacy of pegylated interferon (PegIFN)-ribavirin (Rbv) has improved over time. One hundred seven liver transplant patients [74% men, 55.5 years old (range: 37.5-69.5), 86% genotype 1a or 1b] were treated with PegIFN-Rbv for 355 (16-623) days at 20.1 (1.7-132.6) months after transplantation. Tacrolimus was used in 61%. Sixty-seven percent had baseline F3-F4 (cirrhosis: 20.5%). Donor age was 49 (12-78) years. SVR was achieved in 39 (36.5%) patients, with worse results achieved in recent years (2001-2003: n = 27, 46.5%; 2004: n = 23, 43.5%; 2005: n = 21, 35%; 2006 to January 2007: n = 36, 24%; P = 0.043). Variables associated with SVR in the univariate analysis included donor age, baseline viremia and cirrhosis, bilirubin levels, rapid virologic response and early virologic response (EVR), premature discontinuation of PegIFN or Rbv, and accumulated Rbv dose. In the multivariate analysis, the variables in the model were EVR [odds ratio (OR): 0.08, 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.016-0.414, P = 0.002] and donor age (OR: 1.039, 95% CI: 1.008-1.071, P = 0.01). Variables that had changed over time included donor age, baseline viremia, disease severity (cirrhosis, baseline bilirubin, and leukocyte and platelet counts), interval between transplantation and therapy, and use of growth factors. In the multivariate analysis, variables independently changing were donor age (OR: 1.041, 95% CI: 1.013-1.071, P = 0.004), duration from transplantation to antiviral therapy (OR: 1.001, 95% CI: 1.000-1.001, P = 0.013), and baseline leukocyte count (OR: 1.000, 95% CI: 1.000-1.000, P = 0.034). In conclusion, the efficacy of antiviral therapy with PegIFN-Rbv has worsened over time, at least in our center. The increase in donor age and greater proportion of patients treated at advanced stages of disease are potential causes.

Prevalence of hepatitis C serum antibody in autoimmune diseases

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the prevalence of serum antibodies against hepatitis C virus and other infectious agents in a large cohort of well-characterized patients with autoimmune diseases (AID).

METHODS

We utilized 1322 sera from patients with 18 different AID and 236 sera from healthy controls from the same countries and with similar age and sex distribution. All sera were tested for the presence of serum anti-hepatitis C virus (HCV) antibodies as well as antibodies directed at other infectious agents and autoantibodies.

RESULTS

Anti-HCV antibody was detected in 115/1322 (8.7%) of patients with AID and 0.4% of matched healthy controls (P < 0.0001). The prevalence of anti-HCV antibody was significantly higher in 7/18 different AID (i.e. cryoglobulinemia, mixed cryoglobulinemia pemphigus vulgaris, vasculitis, secondary anti-phospholipid syndrome, Hashimoto's thyroiditis, and inflammatory bowel disease) compared to controls. Patients with AID and serum anti-HCV positivity had an increased prevalence of antibodies against hepatitis B virus, Toxoplasma gondii and Cytomegalovirus as opposed to a lower frequency of serum autoantibodies.

CONCLUSIONS

The enhanced prevalence of anti-HCV serum antibodies in AID may suggest a role for HCV in tolerance to breakdown, similarly to its established role in mixed cryoglobulinemia. This immune mediated effect does not rule out the role of other infectious agents.

Viral Infections

Although influenza remains indisputably the most significant viral pathogen in adults, other viruses such as respiratory syncytial virus, parainfluenza viruses, and human metapneumovirus are now recognized as significant pathogens in older populations.

Oseltamivir and zanamivir are antiviral agents that are effective for the treatment and prophylaxis of influenza A and B. For treatment and for optimal effect, therapy should be initiated within 48 h of symptom onset.

Infection with hepatitis viruses may be more severe in older adults with more fulminate disease as observed with acute hepatitis A and a more rapid progression to cirrhosis with hepatitis C.

Outbreaks of viral gastroenteritis are common in long-term care facilities, and infection may lead to death due to dehydration and oliguria.

The incidence of herpes zoster increases with advancing age and carries with it a significant risk of post herpetic neuralgia. The use of antiviral medications and corticosteroids may reduce the incidence and severity of chronic pain.